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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



The 
AMATEUR MECHANIC 



By A. Frederick Collins 

The Amateur Mechanic 

How to Fly 

The Home Handy Book 

Keeping Up with Your 

Motor Car 
The Book of Wireless 
The Book of Stars 
The Book of Magic 
The Book of Electricity 

D. Appleton & Company 
Publishers New York 



The 
AMATEUR MECHANIC 



BY 



A: FREDERICK COLLINS 

author of "keeping tjp with todb motor cab," "how to fit, 1 
"the book of electricity," etc. 




FULLY ILLUSTRATED 



D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

NEW YORK LONDON 

1918 






COPTBIGHT, 1918, BT 

£. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



OCT -9 !9i8 

Printed in. the United States of America 



©CI.A503759 



TO 
MY NIECE AND NEPHEW 

ETHEL AND EARL COLLINS 



A WORD TO YOU 

Don't do anything until you have read this book ! 

I might qualify the above statement by saying 
that if you are an amateur it will pay you to scan 
the following pages before you try to do mechanical 
things. 

The idea I have tried to carry out is to parallel 
the case of the locomotive engineer. You know, of 
course, that he did not build the engine he drives 
but he knows every part of it, exactly how it works, 
how to run it to get the most power, or speed, or 
both, out of it with the highest fuel economy and, 
further, if he should have a breakdown on the road 
he knows just how to make whatever repairs are 
needed to go on with his run. 

I have presupposed that you know how to use 
ordinary tools (though I have explained the mode 
of operation of a few that relate to the art of meas- 
uring) and I have not told how to make the various 
devices and machines described but what I have 
gone into is how things are constructed, how to make 
simple calculations to get the result you want, how 
the machine works, how to run it to get the most 
light, heat or power out of it at the least cost for 
fuel, upkeep and expenditure of labor, how to repair 

vii 



A WORD TO YOU 

it when something happens, and, lastly, how to 
buy it. 

A further purpose of this book is to tell about the 
kinds of materials that are used in building and the 
appliances that are employed in operating a home 
or a farm so that if you are a householder or a hus- 
bandman you can enjoy all the benefits of the elec- 
trical and mechanical arts known that make for the 
comfort, convenience, economy and safety of your- 
self and family and so make life worth living. 

A. Frederick Collins. 
600 Riverside Drive, 

New York City. 



vm 



CONTENTS 



I. Rules and Tools for Measuring ... 1 

A carpenter's boxwood rule — The triangular 
boxwood rule and scale — A pattern maker's 
shrinkage rule — The use of flexible rules — 
About tape measures — The carpenter's steel 
square — Laying out an octagon or 8-square — 
The brace measure table — The essex board 
measure table — The rafter framing table — The 
vernier — The vernier caliper — The micrometer 
caliper — Gauges for testing and comparing — 
The protractor — The planimeter. 

II. When You Build Your House ... 25 

Comparative cost of buildings — Kinds of ma- 
terials to use — Now about lumber — The way 
wood is seasoned — How to tell good lumber — 
Using lumber to the best advantage — The frame 
of a building — Kinds of woods for building — 
Where to use these woods — How to preserve 
wood — Bricks and brickwork — Plaster for walls 
— About laying brick — Stone and stonework — 
Stucco for buildings — Building with concrete — 
Materials for concrete and where to use them — 
Mixing concrete — Placing concrete — Finishing 
concrete surfaces. 

III. A Water System for Your Place . . 4€ 
Kinds of water supplies — How to purify water 

— The amount of water needed — Schemes for a 
water supply — The gravity system — The air 
pressure or pneumatic system — How to figure 
the capacity of a tank — The weight of water — 
The automatic air, or auto-pneumatic system — 
About pumps and pumping — The action of 
ix 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB PAGE 

pumps — To prevent pipes from freezing — 
When a water pipe is frozen — A work on 
plumbing and sewage. 

IV. A Heating Plant for Your Home . . 63 
What heat is — What temperature means — How 
heat warms a room — How heat is measured — 
About heating and ventilating — Kinds of heat- 
ing plants — To find the size of heater needed 
— Electric heating apparatus — How to get good 
ventilation. 

V. How Machines are Made and Used . . 75 
To find the speed of a shaft, pulley or fly- 
wheel — How to find the size of a pulley — How 
to figure the size of belt needed — How to splice 
a belt — A good belt dressing — Gears and toothed 
wheels — Figuring the size of gears — Friction 
and what it does — How to reduce friction — Fig- 
uring the size of gears — Friction and what it 
does — How to reduce friction — The use of lubri- 
cants — How to find the H.P. needed to drive a 
machine. 

VI. Putting Wind and Water Power to Work 94 
What wind power is — The parts of a windmill 

— Sizes of windmills for pumping — Sizes of 
windmills for machinery — The height of efficient 
winds — About towers for windmills — What 
water power is — Kinds of water wheels — The 
jet water wheel — The water turbine — How the 
turbine is made and works — The hydraulic ram 
— What "heat of water" means — To find the 
horse power of a water wheel — To find the 
amount of water delivered by a ram. 

VII. Making the Steam Engine Work for You 112 
About the energy of steam — What steam pres- 
sure is — How steam is measured — How a steam 
boiler is made — The fittings of a boiler — How a 
steam engine is made — How the engine works — 

The latent heat of steam — What the flywheel 



132 



CONTENTS 

CHART KB 

does— Packing for stuffing boxes— How to figure 
the horse power of a boiler — How to figure the 
H.P. of your engine. 

VIII. Using Hot Air, Gas, Gasoline and Oil En- 

gines 

The hot air engine — How the hot air engine 
works — How to use a hot air engine — The gas 
engine — The parts of a gas engine — How a gas 
engine works — How a gasoline engine works — 
The parts and action of the carburetor — How an 
oil engine works — Sizes and power of engines — 
How to figure the horse power of a gas, gaso- 
line or oil engine. 

IX. How to Hitch Up Power .... 148 
How to use wind power — How to use water 
power — How to use steam power — Using hot 

air power — How to use oil and gasoline power — 
How to use your automobile as a power plant. 

X. Installing a Home Ice-Making Machine . 157 

What cold is — How cold is produced — About 
ice-making machines — How to insulate the brine 
mains — How to build a refrigerator — Some facts 
about ice making — What it costs to make ice. 

XI. Electricity in the Home and on the Farm . 166 

What to know about electricity — What an elec- 
tric installation consists of — How a dynamo is 
made — How a dynamo generates current — The 
electric motor — How a storage battery is made — 
How to use a storage battery — The switchboard 
and its instruments — Wire for the transmission 
line — What an electric plant will do. 

XII. Useful Rules and Tables .... 183 
INDEX 187 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIQUBE PAGB 

3 



1. — Rules and scales 

2. — The steel tape measure .... 

3A. — The carpenter's steel square . 

3B. — Using the steel square .... 

4. — The vernier 

5. — The micrometer 

6. — A level and its plumb glass 

7. — A few other useful gauges 

8. — The protractor for finding angles and measur 
ing them in degrees .... 

9. — A cheap planimeter for measuring the area of 

any plane surface .... 

10. — Cross section view of tree showing medullary 

rays and annual rings .... 
11. — How timber should be cut 
12. — The frame of a building .... 
13. — Kinds of bonds used in laying brick 
14. — Kinds of stone and stone work . 
15. — How stucco is put on ... . 
16. — The only tools you need for concrete work 
17. — Forms for placing concrete 
18. — Some concrete block designs . 
19. — The pasteur water filter .... 
20. — A home-made water distilling apparatus . 
21. — A gravity water system .... 
22. — The hydro-pneumatic system . 
23A. — The auto-pneumatic water pump . 
23B. — The auto-pneumatic water system . 
24. — Kinds of pumps 

xiii 



6 

8 
9 
14 
18 
19 
21 

22 

23 

27 
29 
30 
36 
37 
39 
43 
44 
45 
48 
50 
52 
53 
56 
57 
58 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIQUBB 

25. — Fahrenheit and centigrade scales compared 

26. — How a hot air furnace works . 

27. — A one pipe hot water system . 

28. — A two pipe hot water system . 

29. — A one pipe steam heating system 

30. — A two pipe steam heating system 

31. — How to get good ventilation . 

32. — The six simple machines . 

33. — Kinds of levers .... 

34. — Kinds of pulleys 

35. — The speed indicator and how it is used . 

36. — Transmission of power by pulleys and belting 

37. — Kinds of belt splices 

38. — Kinds of spur gears . 

39. — Gears of various kinds 

40. — Sprocket wheels and chain 

41. — Ratchets and pawls . 

42A. — Roller bearing . 

42B. — A ball bearing 

43A. — A dynamometer to measure horse power 

43B. — Dynamometer to measure the horse power of 

a machine 
44A. — The parts of a steel windmill 
44B. — The parts of a windmill . 
44C. — The parts of a windmill . 
45. — Kinds of water wheels 
46A & B. — The jet turbine or water wheel . 
46C. — The jet turbine or water wheel 
47A. — Diagram of how a water turbine works 
47B. — A standard vertical water turbine . 
47C. — The water turbine and how it works 
48A. — Cross section of a hydraulic ram . 
48B. — The hydraulic ram at work . 
49. — How to measure the head of water of your 

supply 109 



xiv 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

50. — A horizontal tubular boiler .... 115 

51. — The return tubular boiler 116 

52A. — The water gauge complete .... 117 

52B. — Cross sections of a water gauge . . . 118 

52C. — A steam pressure gauge 120 

52D. — How a safety valve works .... 121 

52E. — How a steam whistle is made .... 122 

53 A. — Top cross section view of a steam engine . 125 

53B. — Side cross section view of a steam engine . 125 

53C. — Diagram showing how a steam engine works . 126 

54A. — A flyball governor of a steam engine . . 128 

55. — Cross section of a hot air engine . . . 133 

56. — Cross section of a gas engine .... 136 

57. — Hot tube igniter for a gas engine . • . 137 

58. — A battery ignition system .... 138 

59. — A magneto ignition system .... 139 

60. — How a gas engine works 140 

61. — How a carburetor works 142 

62. — Oil engine with tank underground . • . 143 

63. — Details of an auto power plant .... 153 

64. — A motor car power plant 155 

65. — How an ammonia ice-making plant works . 160 

66. — A sulphur dioxide ice-making machine . . 162 
67. — A complete ice-making plant . . . .163 

68. — How a current is set up in a moving wire . . 170 

69. — The principle of the dynamo .... 171 

70. — How a dynamo is wound 172 

71. — A portable electric motor 173 

72. — The parts of a storage battery .... 176 
73. — Wiring diagram of a storage battery system . 178 
74. — The Delco-Light direct drive dynamo . . 179 
75. — The Morse Fairbanks belt-driven dynamo . 180 
76. — Lamps, heating apparatus and motors are con- 
nected up in parallel 181 



xv 



THE 
AMATEUR MECHANIC 

CHAPTER I 
RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

All tools for measuring may be divided into two 
classes, and these are (1) rules and instruments for 
making actual measurements, and (2) gauges for 
testing and comparing. 

A rule is simply a strip of wood, or metal, or other 
material, having a straight edge and whose surface is 
graduated into inches or centimeters * and fractions 
thereof. This graduated surface is called a scale, 
and sometimes the rule itself is spoken of as a scale. 

A Carpenter's Boxwood Rule. — Carpenters' 
rules are not all made alike, for some are 1 foot-4 fold, 
some are 2 foot-2 fold, those in general use are 2 foot- 
4 fold, others are 3 foot-4 fold and, finally, there are 
4 foot-4 fold rules. 

But a regular carpenter's rule is taken to mean a 
2 foot-4 fold hoxwood rule, the scales heing divided 
into eighths, tenths, twelfths and sixteenths of an 

1 A unit of lineal measurement used in the Metric System. 

i 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

inch. To measure closely, turn the rule on its edge 
so that the graduated lines set against the board or 
whatever it is you are measuring. A rule of this 
kind is shown at A in Eig. 1. 

The Triangular Boxwood Rule and Scale. — If 
you are making machine or architectural drawings 
you should by all means have one of these scales, for 
with it you can draw to scale, or get the actual di- 
mensions from drawings that have been made to 
scale, both easily and quickly. 

This rule, which is shown at B, has, as you will 
see, three sides and each side has two surfaces, mak- 
ing six surfaces in all. On one of these surfaces 
there is an ordinary twelve-inch scale graduated in 
inches and a different scale is graduated on each end 
of the other five surfaces, thus making eleven scales 
all told. These other ten scales are graduated to 3V, 
i*y i> h h h 5> 1) li an d 3 inches to the foot. 

To Learn the Rule. — Lay it on the table with the 
twelve-inch scale away from you, just as though you 
were going to draw a line and so that it reads from 
on the left to 12 on the right. Now turn the rule 
toward you until the next side is uppermost, and you 
will see that the upper left-hand scale reads to f of 
an inch toward the right, and that the upper right- 
hand scale reads to f of an inch toward the left. 

The lower left-hand scale, you will observe, reads 
to 3 inches toward the right, and that the lower 
right-hand scale reads to li inches toward the left. 
You will also note that the left-hand upper and lower 

2 




A CARPENTERS RULE 




B ARCHITECTS SCALE 



i.i,i!l.i.i,fl.i.i.a,i,i.. l !ii,i.iJ R,i;B,i,i!B,i,ffl>.i.ffl'.i.i.i?Bi.i.f?Ri.i, 



C PATTERN MAKERS RULE 




/? FLEXIBLE RULE 



Fig. 1. — Rules and Scales 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

scales are just twice as long as their respective right- 
hand scales. 

Further at the beginning of each scale there is a 
space marked into either 12 or 24 smaller spaces. 
These spaces represent 1 foot, or 12 inches, and each 
space represents -J inch when there are 24 of them, 
or 1 inch when there are 12 of them. 

How to Use the Rule. — Now suppose you are 
drawing the plans for a drawer and that you want 
your plan when it is done to he § as large as the 
drawer will really be, that is, you want your plans 
drawn to a scale so that f inch will equal 1 inch. 

If the drawer is to be Vi inches wide and you 
drew it with an ordinary rule, you would have to 
multiply § by 7J and the product will tell you 
that you must measure off f f inches or forty-five iV 
inch spaces from the end. And you would do this 
two or three times over, because you would be the 
exception if you didn't lose count of them. 

By using the triangular rule you do away with 
all this bother, for, if in the drawing you are mak- 
ing J inch equals 1 inch and the width is YJ inches, 
you simply use the scale marked f inch and mark 
off 1\ spaces. Or if your drawing is to a scale of 
§ inch to 1 foot you start at the end of the § inch 
scale and measure off 7 big spaces to the left; next 
measure off 6 of the small spaces to the right of 
0, since each of these represents 1 inch and since 6 
inches equals J a foot ; and thus you have measured 
off 7J feet with the scale where § equals 1 foot 

4 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

In the same way you can use any scale on the 
rule and make working drawings to any scale within 
its limitations and without any calculation whatever. 
The chief thing to remember is that each of these 
scales starts off with a space divided into 12 parts 
or 24 parts depending on the size of the scale and 
whether this space represents 1 foot and the smaller 
spaces i an inch or 1 inch, as the case may be. A 
rule of this kind can be bought 2 for as little as sixty 
cents. 

A Pattern Maker's Shrinkage Rule. — When a 
casting is made the metal shrinks on cooling, and to 
allow for this shrinkage the pattern must be made a 
little larger than the casting is to be. 

A shrinkage rule, see C, is graduated to allow for 
the shrinkage of the metal you are using. The spac- 
ing of the graduations is used to measure the patterns 
you are making, while the figures on the graduations 
show the actual size the castings will be. 

The Use of Flexible Rules. — Rules made of 
cardboard, celluloid, thin steel and wood are useful 
for measuring curved surfaces. 

Cardboard rules can be bought 3 for a couple of 
cents each; celluloid rules 6 inches long can be had 
for five cents each, and very thin spring-tempered 
rules for machinists 4 can be purchased in any lengths 

•Triangular boxwood rules can be bought of the L. E. 
Knott Apparatus Co., Boston, Mass., and also of KeuiFel and 
Esser Co., 127 Fulton St., New York. 

'The L. E. Knott Apparatus Co. sells these. 

4 These rules are sold by Hammacher, Schleinmer and Co., 
Fourth Ave. and. 13th St., New York. 

5 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

from 1 inch up to 48 inches for fifteen cents for the 
shortest up to $7 for the longest. 

Where measurements of doors, windows, boilers, 




Fig. 2. — The Steel Tape Measure 



etc., are to be made a flexible folding wood rule will 
be found very convenient, while a flexible steel fold- 
ing rule, as shown at D, is a good one to use for 
metal work. 

About Tape Measures. — These elongated rules 
are used by every carpenter, mason, contractor, sur- 

6 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

veyor and engineer and you ought to have one in your 
kit of tools. 

An ordinary tape measure, see A in Fig. 2, con- 
sists of a thin, flexible steel tape from \ to f inch 
wide and from 25 to 100 feet long; it is graduated 
on one side into feet, inches and eighths and is fitted 
into a hard leather case. The tape can he reeled up 
by a handle which folds in flush with the side of 
the case. 

The Roe tape measure has a right angle attachment 
which permits it to be used quickly and accurately 
for laying out right angles as shown at B. It is 
based on the well-known trigonometrical formula that 
a triangle whose sides measure 6, 8 and 10 feet makes 
a right angle. Hence, by using this tape measure 
you can get a perfect right angle without a surveying- 
instrument or tools or help of any kind. 

The Carpenter's Steel Square. — The ordinary 
carpenter s square, or steel square, or framing square, 
as it is variously called, is used not only as a rule, a 
straight edge and a try square in building construc- 
tion but also for laying out octagons, or 8 squares, 
as they are called, finding the square feet in boards, 
or hoard measure as it is termed, finding the lengths 
and cuts of braces and also of common, hip, valley 
and jack rafters for different pitches of roofs. 

The ordinary steel square is formed of two parts 
though these are usually made of one piece of steel 
about -§■ of an inch thick and which set at right angles 
to each other as shown at A in Fig. 3. The long 

7 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 




Fig. 3A.~-The Carpenter's Steel Squam 



piece of the square is called the blade and is about 
2 inches wide and 24 inches long; the short piece is 
called the tongue and this is about li inches wide and 
16 inches long. 

8 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 



The side of the square with the maker's name 
stamped on it is called its face and the other and op- 
posite side is called its bach. It is usually divided 
into tvtt, A, tV, tV, tV and -J inch scale divisions. 

Laying Out an Octagon or 8-Square. — Along 
the middle of the tongue of the square you will find 





€ a. 5 
J1ETHOO OFCONSTRUCTING 
AN OCTAGON IN A SQUARE 
WITH ANOCTAGON SCALE SHOWING HOW TO 

CUT BRACE FROMTABLE 
OF BRACE LENGTHS 

Fig. 3B. — Using the Steel Square 

a scale for drawing octagons, or 8-squares, as shown 
at B in Fig. 3. 

To draw an octagon you must first draw a square 
which is just large enough to contain the sized octagon 
you are going to make. Having drawn your square, 
bisect it, that is, find the middle of each side of it 
with your dividers, as at (a) which is the middle 
point. 

Next take your dividers and, using the 8-squaro 
9 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

scale of the square, set them to as many spaces of 
the scale as there are inches in any one side of the 
square you have drawn. Lay this distance off on 
both sides of each middle point, as shown at B 1, 

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Then connect these points 
with lines starting at 1 and drawing to 2, from 2 to 

3, and so on until the octagon is complete. 

You will observe that it is the 8-square scale on the 
square and not the square itself that is the important 
part of laying out octagons and that a scale of this 
kind marked on a rule would serve the purpose just 
as well. 

The Brace Measure Table. — Along the center of 
the back of the tongue of your square you will find a 
table of numbers and you will see that there are two 
numbers, one above the other, which are equal and one 
number to the left of them. 

The purpose of this table is to make it possible 
for a carpenter to instantly determine the length of 
a brace when its ends are to be fixed at equal distances 
from the intersecting post, beam, shelf, wall or any 
other like construction. 

The table is used like this : Suppose that you have 
a shelf you want to iix to the wall with a pair of 
braces, and that you want to have each end of each 
brace 9 inches from the point where the wall and the 
shelf intersect each other. Look at the table and 
you will see that after the set of number 9 the number 
12. 72 is just to the left of it. 

This number — 12.72 — is the length in inches, then, 
10 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

that you must make the short side of the brace, so 
cut a piece of wood a little longer than 12.72 inches 
— say 15 inches — if the brace is to be made 12.72 
inches on one side. ]STow put it in your miter box 
and cut off each end at an angle of 45 degrees, when 
it will just fit into the corner with each end 9 inches 
away from the intersection of the shelf and wall, as 
shown at C. 

This table is based on the same trigonometrical 
relations between the lengths of the sides of a right 
triangle as that described under the caption of Tape 
Measures. 

The Essex Board Measure Table.— The term 
hoard measure means the number of square feet in a 
board 1 inch thick. A board 2 inches thick will 
have twice as many hoard feet in it as a board 1 inch 
thick, and so on. 

Of course a board 12 inches wide will have as 
many feet in it as it is feet long and you don't have 
to do any figuring to know the answer. But if the 
board is more or less than 12 inches wide you will 
have to make a small calculation to find the board 
feet in it. If, for instance, the board is 8 inches 
wide and 10 feet long, to figure out the board feet 
you will have to find the number of square inches in 
it first and then divide the product by 144. 

But if you use the Essex board measure table on 
the square you can instantly find the number of board 
feet in a board without any calculation. The start- 
ing point in this table is always the figure. 12. If, 

11 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

now, you want to find the board feet in a board 8 
inches wide and 10 feet long, simply follow the 
graduated line on the left of the table down to the 
figure 10, then follow the cross line toward the left 
to 8, and you will find that the number under 8 is 6 ; 
you will also see that 6 is to the left of the cross line 
and 8 is to the right, which means that there is 6 
feet and t% inches, board measure, in the board. 

But if the board is wider than 12 inches, then you 
follow the cross line toward the right to the number 
representing the^ length of the board you want to 
measure. If the board is 2 inches, multiply the 
result you get by 2, which will give you the board 
measure for that thickness. 

The Rafter Framing Table. — On the back of a 
good steel square you will find a table of numbers 
marked between the scales of inches on the tongue. 

With this table you can find the lengths for rafters 
of known rise and run for a given 'pitch. The rise 
of a rafter is the vertical height from its ridge end 
to a horizontal line on a level with its foot. 

The run of a rafter is the reach in length from the 
outside edge of its foot to a point exactly under its 
ridge end on a horizontal line level with its foot. 
The pitch of a rafter is the ratio of the rise to twice 
the run, which is usually equal to the width of the 
building. 

Now, if you will look at the left- of the table you 
will see a series of figures, thus : 

12 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 





PITCH 


12—4 




1/6 


12—6 




1/4 


12—8 




1/3 


12—10 




5/12 


12—12 




1/2 


12—15 




5/8 


12—18 




3/4 



These numbers are the common pitches at which, 
rafters are set. Now if your rafter is to be set at 
such a slant that for every horizontal foot of run, or 
12 inches, it rises 4 inches vertically, then the pitch, 
or slant, of the rafter is £. 

Let's suppose you have a rafter with, a known 
pitch of £ and a run of 4 feet and you want to find 
the length. Follow the horizontal line on the table 
on your square from J until you come under the 4 
on the inches scale at the top of the table, and the 
number you find under 4 will be the length of the 
rafter needed, thus: 



Pitch 



12—6 



1/64 2 



Hence, for a rafter having a pitch of £ and a run 
of 4 feet, the required length will be 4 feet, 2 inches 
and -it of an inch. The first number 4 represents 
the feet, the second inches and the third twelfths of 
an inch. In the same way you will see that a rafter 

13 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

having a J pitch and a run of 20 feet will be 24' 0" 
tV, or 24 feet and \ inch. 

The Vernier.— It is easy to measure small frac- 
tions of an inch with the vernier which cannot be 
measured at all with an ordinary rule. 

The vernier, as shown at A, in Fig. 4, consists of 

BLADE VERNIER 




A VERNIER 

HOW THE VERNIER 

/S READ 



B 

JAWS 
THE VERNIER* 
CALIPER 




M/CROMETER VERNIER 
READING TO /O t OOO T J1? 
OF AN INCH 
Fig. 4. — The Vernier 

a short rule the scale of which slides against the 
scale of an ordinary rule. Because the scale divisions 
of the vernier and rules are of different widths, it is 
possible to read very small parts of the spaces with 
a good deal of accuracy. Jt is called a vernier after 
Pierre Vernier, the French mathematician, who in- 
vented it. 

14 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

The principle on which the vernier works is this : 
First the scale of the ordinary rule is divided, let's 
say, into lOths of an inch, and that the vernier is 1 
inch long and is divided into 9ths of an inch — that 
is, it has one less scale division or space to the 
inch than the rule it slides against. 

Now when the end lines of both the scales of the 
vernier and the rule meet, that is, when they are in 
a line with each other, the 10th line on the vernier 
will exactly coincide with the 9th line on the rule. 

If, now, you slide the vernier toward the right 
so that the first lines on the vernier and rule meet, 
the vernier will have moved exactly tV of a scale 
division or space, which is tto - of an inch, for this is 
the difference between the two scales. By sliding 
the vernier over until the second lines meet, it will 
have moved tV of a scale division, or ?f v of an inch, 
or ^V of an inch, and so on. Verniers are put on 
and used with various measuring tools, such as 
calipers, protractors, etc. 

The Vernier Caliper. — The vernier caliper 
shown at B is made to take inside as well as out- 
side measurements. It is graduated on the front to 
read, by means of the vernier, to lOOOths of an inch 
and on the back to 64ths of an inch. 

How to Read a Vernier Caliper. — There are three 
chief makes of vernier calipers, and these are (1) 
the Brown and Sharp, (2) the Starr ett and (3) 
the Columbia Pattern. 

On either of the first two makes of calipers the 
15 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

scale of the tool is graduated to 40ths, that is, in 
.025 ( tV ) of an inch, and every fourth division, 
which is tMtj- of an inch, is numbered. 

On the vernier plate there is a space divided into 
25 parts, and these are numbered 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 
25. These 25 divisions on the vernier take up exact- 
ly the same space as the 24 divisions on the scale of 
the rule. This makes the difference between the 
width of one of the 25 spaces on the vernier and one 
of the 24 spaces on the scale -rs of A or ttrrt of an 
inch. 

If now the vernier is set so that the line on the 
vernier coincides with the line on the rule, the 
next two lines will be tvVt of an inch apart, the next 
two lines will be tVW of an inch apart, and so on. 

To read the caliper after having made a measure- 
ment, see how many inches, tV (or .100) and 
tV (or .025), the mark on the vernier is from 
the mark on the rule, and then count the number 
of divisions on the vernier from to a line which 
exactly coincides with a line on the scale. 

In the picture shown at C the vernier has been 
moved to the right 1 iV and tV inches, or 1.425 inches, 
as the 11th line on the vernier coincides with a line 
on the rule. tWtf of an inch must in consequence 
be added to the reading on the scale of the rule and 
the total reading is therefore 1.436 inches, which is 
the distance the jaws of the caliper have been opened. 

The Micrometer Caliper.— The Micrometer cali- 
per, or just micrometer for short, is a little tool which 

16 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

will measure very accurately from to 1 inch in 
thousandths or even ten-thousandths of an inch. 

A micrometer is formed of (1) a frame to which is 
fixed (2) the anvil and through which (3) the spindle 
passes; the spindle is fastened to (4) the thimble 
and these turn in (5) the sleeve, as shown at A in 
Fig. 5. 

How to Read a Micrometer. — To measure the 
thickness of a sheet of paper or anything else, put 
it between the anvil and the end of the spindle and 
hold the frame with your left hand. Kow turn the 
thimble with your right hand and since the spindle 
is fixed to the thimble it of course turns with it. 
This makes it move through the nut in the frame 
and toward or away from the anvil. 

The distance between the opposed surfaces of the 
anvil and the spindle is shown by the lines and figures 
on the sleeve and the thimble, and these tell the thick- 
ness of the thing you have measured. 

The pitch of the screw threads on the inside part 
of the spindle which screws through the nut, is 40 
to the inch ; one complete turn of the spindle, there- 
fore, moves it up or down tV, or tMtj> of an inch. 
The sleeve is marked with 40 lines to the inch and 
these correspond to the number of threads on the 
spindle. 

When the end of the spindle rests on the anvil the 
graduated edge of the thimble is exactly even with the 
line marked on the sleeve and the line on the 
thimble tallies with the horizontal line on the sleeve. 

17 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

Now if you will open the micrometer by giving the 
thimble one full turn, or until the line on the thim- 
ble again coincides with the horizontal line on the 
sleeve, the distance between the anvil and the sleeve 
is then tV of an inch, or .025 of an inch, and the 
graduated edge of the thimble will coincide with the 
second vertical line on the sleeve. 

Each vertical line on the sleeve indicates a dis- 
tance of tV of an inch; every fourth line is made 

SLEEVE BEVJEL 
mvfL SP^PLE 





K TH/MBLE 
AI/CROMETER\^ A BEVEL " VERNIER 

«m£ofA^'»»* m**em with 

VERNIER READING 
TO /O.OOO™ Of 
AN INCH 

Fig. 5. — The Micrometer 

longer than the others and is numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, 
etc., and each line so numbered indicates a distance 
of four times j\ of an inch or iV. 

The graduated edge of the thimble is marked in 
25 divisions with every fifth line numbered from 
to 25. When you turn the thimble from one of 
these marks to the next, you move the spindle up or 
down -jV of T !ihr or the T Av part of an inch. By 
turning it two divisions it shows two tcW, etc., while 
25 divisions shows one complete turn or .025 of an 
inch, or ?V of an inch. 

18 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

All you have to -do to read the micrometer, then, 
is to multiply the number of vertical divisions which 
you can see on the sleeve by 25 and all the number 
of divisions on the graduated edge of the thimble 
from the line to the line which tallies with the 
horizontal line on the sleeve; multiply this number 
by 25 and add the number of divisions shown on the 



^ LEVEL WJTH PLUA/B GL/7SS 
#T E/?CH END 



ALCOHOL CENTER. 

BL 

TUBE 



\ (L/NESj BL 



PLUMB GLASS MARKED /?T /TS 
CENTER OP CROWN /NG POINT BY TWO UHES 

Pig. 6. — A Level and Its Plumb Glass 

bevel of the thimble. In the cut shown at A the 
micrometer is open 7 X 25 = 175 -f- 3 = 178 or 
tWo of an inch. 

A Micrometer Reading to Teiv-Thousandths. — A 
vernier is used on a micrometer, see B, in order to 
read it to ttt.Wtt of an inch. To read a ttf.ttgt 
micrometer, first find the thousandths of an inch as 
described above, and then note the line on the thimble. 
If it is the second line, marked 1, add ttf.W; if it 
is the third line, marked 2, add tt»;!o"o, etc. 

19 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

Ganges for Testing and Comparing.— Ganges 

for every purpose to facilitate or to make more accu- 
rate the work of the mechanic can be bought at almost 
any hardware store. If you cannot get what you 
want, write Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., Fourth 
Avenue and 13th Street, New York, and they will 
most likely be able to supply you with the tool you 
need. 

One of the most common and useful gauges is the 
carpenter s or masons level, shown at A in Fig. 6. 
When you are putting in a foundation for either a 
building or for machinery, the first thing to do is to 
find whether the top of it is level. This is done with 
a level ; and to ascertain whether the side of the wall 
is plumb, an upright level, or plumb, must be used. 

A spirit level consists of a sealed glass tube nearly 
filled with alcohol and having a bubble floating in 
it, as shown at B. This plumb glass, as it is called, 
is set in a stock, or length of wood, when the whole 
device is*called a level. When the level is laid on 
a level surface the bubble will be in the middle of 
the glass, but if the surface is not level the bubble 
will flow to one end or the other to indicate it. 

Levels are usually made with two plumb glasses, 
one in the upper edge and one in the top of and at 
right angles to it, so that it can be used to find if 
the side of a wall, as well as the top of it, is level. 
A few of the more common gauges used by machinists 
are shown in Fig. 7. 

The Protractor. — To find any angle or to plot one 
20 





/?- OUTSIDE CALIPERS & INSIDE CALIPERS 




C 

CREW 
THREAD 
GAUGE 




D' WIRE GAUGE 




F- THICKNESS GAUGE 



E- DEPTH GAUGE 





G-THREPD. SCREW H- TAPER GAUGE 

AND TWIST DRILL 
GAUGE 

Fig. 7. — A Few Other Useful Gauges 
21 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

from to 360 degrees, a protractor is used. This 
instrument is usually made in the shape of a semi- 
circle and, as there are 360 degrees in a circle, there 




Fig. 8. — The Protractor for Finding Angles and 
Measuring Them in Degrees 
A. — A Brass Protector graduated in single degrees 
B. — A German Silver Protector graduated in ^2 degrees 

with vernier arm reading to 1 minute 

are, of course, 180 degrees in a semicircular pro- 
tractor. Each degree can be further divided into 60 
minutes and each minute into 60 seconds, like the 
hour in our time system. 

22 



RULES AND TOOLS FOR MEASURING 

A brass protractor 3 J inches in diameter can be 
bought 5 for as little as 25 cents. One of this kind 
is shown at A in Fig. 8. For all ordinary work 
scale divisions of 1 degree, or ^ degree, will be found 
close enough; but where readings to minutes are 
needed a vernier protractor, as shown at B, must be 
used. 

To use an ordinary protractor, place it on a sheet 

, POLE 

<S MEASURING 
O WHEEL 

Fig. 9. — A Cheap Planimeter fob Measuring the Area 
of Any Plane Surface 

of paper, lay a rule on top of it and keep its edge 
exactly over the nick in the middle of its straight 
edge. Then move the edge of the rule until it is on 
the line of the degree you want to mark off. Draw 
a line and you will have the angle you want. 

The Planimeter.— This instrument gets its name 
from planus, which is Latin for flat, and meter, 
which comes from the Greek metron, meaning to 
measure. It is shown in Fig. 9. 

It is so constructed that by a simple mechanical 
6 L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., Boston, Mass. 

23 




THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

operation the area of any flat figure, however irregu- 
lar the boundary line of it may be and drawn to what- 
ever scale, such as a plot of ground, plans, indicator 
diagrams, etc., can be easily and quickly measured. 

The area of the plane figure is measured by mere- 
ly tracing the outline with the tracing point and 
figuring the result from the reading on the graduated 
wheel. This wheel is divided into 100 parts, each 
of which represents tV of a square inch, and each 
10th can be read down to lOOths by the vernier on 
the instrument. 

The simplest and cheapest planimeter measures up 
to 10 square inches and costs about $15. It can be 
bought of Keuffel and Esser, 101 Fulton Street, New 
York, or of the L. E. Knott Apparatus Company, 
Boston, Mass. 



CHAPTER II 
WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

You will find it a money saving deal to know 
something about building materials and bow to choose 
and use them before you start in to build a house, 
or even a chicken coop. 

Without such a working knowledge it is easy to 
pay high prices for poor grades and to use costly 
materials where cheaper kinds will do just as well. 
This is equally true whether you are going to do 
the job yourself or to hire someone to do it for you. 

Comparative Cost of Buildings.— There are 
many kinds of materials used for building purposes, 
but the five chief ones are (1) wood; (2) brick; (3) 
stone; (4) stucco; and (5) concrete. 

TABLE 

Kind of Building Coat 

Wood $5,000 

Brick 5,575 

Stucco 5,100 

Concrete built with forms 5,600 

Concrete built of blocks 4,200 

Stone 5,600 

Rubble 5,500 

25 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

The comparative cost of buildings in which these 
materials are used varies in different localities, but 
the above table will serve to show them approxi- 
mately. 

Kinds of Materials to Use.— Where ordinary 
buildings are put up, the piling, if it is used, can be 
of wood or concrete. For basement walls to the first 
floor level, plank, brick, rubble, stone, concrete or 
hollow tile can be used. 

Walls are built of wood, brick, stone, stucco, con- 
crete, and occasionally of tile. Chimneys can be 
laid up of brick or built of concrete. All kinds of 
material, such as wood, asphalt and asbestos shingles, 
tin, galvanized iron, copper and zinc, slate and tile, 
are used for roofing. 

Floors can be made of wood, concrete, tile, mosaic, 
rubber or pulp. The outside trim, such as doors and 
finish, windows and finish, pillars and turned work 
in general, and the inside finish, such as stairs, rail- 
ings, ceiling beams, mantels, paneling, etc., all come 
under the head of mill work and can be bought ready 
made cheaper than you or a carpenter could possibly 
make them. They are far better, too, when bought 

Builders hardware includes all kinds of hardware 
used on a building, and, finally, for plastering, wood 
and metal lath are used. 

Now about Lumber.— When the Tree is Felled. 
— The word timber is used to mean both growing trees 
and cut trees and squared and sawed wood of the 
larger sizes, while the word lumber is taken to mean 

26 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

timber which has been sawed into scantlings and 
boards. 

When a tree is sawed down, if you will look at 
the end of it, yon will see in the center a little dot 
or circle, and this is called the pith of it. Around 
the pith there is a series of concentric rings called 
annual rings. The number of them shows the age 
of the tree, since there is a ring for every year of 

HEARTWOOD 



SAPWOOi 




EDULLARY RAYS 



P/TH 



ANNUAL RINGS 



Fig. 10. — Cross Section View op Tree Showing Medul- 
lary Rays and Annual Rings 

growth. Naturally, the size of the tree depends on 
the number of rings. 

The wood next to the pith is called the heartwood, 
then comes the sapwood and finally the hark. The 
medullary rays are the lines that extend radially from 
the center to the circumference and all of which are 
shown in the cross section view, Fig. 10. 

The Way Wood Is Seasoned.— When a tree is 
growing there is a large amount of sap in it. Since 
this is formed chiefly of water, when the tree is felled 

27 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

the water still remains in it. Before it can be used 
for building, the water must be dried out of it to 
some extent, and this process is called seasoning. 

The two usual ways of getting rid of the water 
are by (1) natural seasoning and (2) hot air season- 
ing. If after the rough work has been done on a 
building it is left for a while before finishing, it 
dries out still more, and this is called second sea- 
soning. 

Natural Seasoning. — The natural way of season- 
ing lumber is the best way, but it takes a long time. 
It is done by piling it up so that the air can pass 
freely all around each piece. When you buy lum- 
ber for outside use, be sure to get it seasoned by this 
process. 

Hot Air Seasoning. — This is the artificial method 
and, while it is quickly done, it is not nearly as good 
as natural seasoning. It consists of putting the lum- 
ber in a drying room, that is, a room which is kept 
hot by means of steam pipes. Wood seasoned in 
this way is very apt to shrink or swell with the 
changes of the weather. Hence it should never be 
used except for inside work. 

How to Tell Good Lumber. — Trees have their 
diseases and parasites as well as human beings and 
in buying lumber, as in every day life, you must look 
out for them. 

Lumber for building should be straight grained, 
be clear, that is, without knots, and be free from 
sap. You can always tell good lumber by its sweet 

28 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

smell. Its shavings will have a close-knit texture 
and a smooth, silk-like sheen. Don't buy lumber 
which has a bad smell and a chalky look. 



TOPFPCE 




PROPER WAY TO 
CUT FRAMING TIMBER 



PROPER WAY TO 
CUT SILLS 




PROPER WAY TO CUT 
FLOORING 

Fig. 11. — How Timber Should Be Cut 



Using Lumber to the Best Advantage.— To 

prevent lumber that is used for the frame of a build* 

29 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

ing from shrinking, it should be cut so that the an- 
nual rings run in the same direction as the long end 
of the board, as shown at A in Fig. 11. 

Where beams are used for sills, as the horizontal 
members which form the foundation of the building 
are called and on which the weight of the building 
rests, the beam will be stronger if it is laid with the 
annual rings horizontal, as shown at B. Flooring 
is less apt to shrink and will wear better if you can 
get it so that its annual rings are perpendicular to 
the surface, as shown at C. 

The Frame of a Building. — The sills of a build- 
ing are the horizontal timbers that form the founda- 




*&& 



Fig. 12. — The Frame op a Building 



tion on which the frame rests; the studding is the 
joists or upright posts in the frame; the rafters are 
the beams that give the slope to a roof, while the 

30 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

weatherboards are the outside boards of a building. 
These last are generally formed of clapboards, that is, 
boards whose lower edges are thicker than their up- 
per edges, and they are nailed on so as to overlap 
and shed the rain. Fig. 12 shows the frame of a 
building. 

Shingles are thin pieces of wood, or of other ma- 
terials, usually 4 or more inches wide and 18 inches 
long, | inch thick at one end and tapering down to 
-J inch thick at the other end. For the number 
and weight of shingles see Appendix I, and for the 
size, length and number of shingle nails to the pound 
see Appendix II. Finally, finish means the inside 
finish of a building and trim means the molding 
and finish outside. 

Kinds of Woods for Building. — There are only 
about a dozen kinds of woods used for building pur- 
poses generally. These are named in the order of 
their relative costs, beginning with the cheapest. Af- 
ter each one is given its weight per foot in board 
measure. You can find the board feet either with a 
carpenter's steel square which is given under the sub- 
caption of Essex Board Measure on page 38, or by 
a simple calculation. 

Where to Use These Woods.— While the fol- 
lowing kinds of woods are largely used in this part 
of the country (Eastern States) for the different 
structural parts of buildings, of course other woods 
can be used, if you find them cheaper or easier to 
get. 

31 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

TABLE 



Pounds per Foot of 
Order of Relative Costs Wood, Board Measure 

Hemlock is cheapest 2 . 08 

Spruce 2.30 

Yellow pine 3 . 17 

White pine 2.30 

North Carolina pine 

Beech 

Chestnut 3.12 

Maple 

Cypress 3.11 

Oak 4.15 

Cedar costs most 2 . 97 



For the sills use spruce or hemlock. 

For the studding use pine or hemlock. 

For the rafters use pine. 

For the clapboards use North Carolina pine. 

For the shingles get cedar, if possible. 

And for finishing use yellow pine, spruce, cypress, 
maple, chestnut or oak, and use cedar for lining 
closets, if it does not hit your pocketbook too hard. 

How to Preserve Wood. — To make wood last as 
long as possible it must be (1) thoroughly seasoned, 
(2) entirely free from cracks, or shakes as they are 
called, and (3) protected by some kind of a preserva- 
tive. 

There is never very much deterioration of inside 
woodwork, but it can be painted, oiled or varnished 
to advantage since, when it is so treated, it is more 
sanitary and sometimes more artistic. 

As for outside woodwork on a building, the best 
32 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

way to preserve it is to paint it. The best kind of 
paint is made of pure white lead and boiled linseed 
oil. Where wood is to be set in the ground, as 
posts, piles and flag poles, the ends can be tarred, 
charred or creosoted. * Tarring and creosoting are 
simple processes, for the wood needs only to be dipped 
into the former and soaked in the latter while it is 
hot. Charring is done by covering the end of the 
wood with charcoal and burning it. 

Bricks and Brickwork. — A brick is a piece of 
molded clay which is dried in the sun and then 
burned in a kiln. Bricks come in two colors, red 
and white. The color of red bricks is caused by iron 
compounds in the clay, while light-colored bricks are 
made from clay which is practically free from iron. 

Kinds of Bricks. — Bricks can be divided into two 
general classes, and these are (1) stock or kiln-run 
bricks, which are hard enough for the outside of 
buildings, and (2) soft or salmon bricks, which are 
used only for backing up and filling in. 

There are a dozen grades of brick of the first kind 
and among these are (a) common molded, (b) 
pressed and (c) enameled bricks. There are half 
a dozen grades of the second kind and among these 
are common, soft and salmon brick. 

The size of a standard brick in the United States 
is 2 x 4 x 8J inches and its weight is about 4J pounds. 

1 For wood preservatives write the Carbolineum Wood Pre- 
serving Co., 36 Greene Street, New York, or the Lyster Chemical 
Co., 61 Broadway, New York. 

33 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

There are 66 cubic inches in a brick and, hence, it 
takes 26.2 bricks to make a cubic foot 

Bricks are very porous. A common brick will 
absorb as much as ^ of its weight of water; but a 
really good brick should not absorb more than tV 
of its weight of water. To test a brick for porosity, 
weigh it, then let it soak in water over night and 
weigh it again. The difference in the weights will 
give the weight of the water absorbed. 

Mortar for Brickwork. — In laying up a brick wall 
or chimney, the bricks are held together with a ce- 
ment called mortar, which is made of slaked lime and 
sand. 

Lime, or more properly quicklime, is a substance 
whose chemical name is calcium oxide. When it is 
mixed with water it generates a lot of heat and 
changes into calcium hydroxide. This process is 
known as slaking. 

Sand is then mixed with it and the mortar thus 
made slowly absorbs carbon dioxide from the air 
which, acting on the calcium hydroxide, forms cal- 
cium carbonate, or limestone, and when the water 
dries out it becomes very hard. The purpose of the 
sand is to make the mortar porous so that the carbon 
dioxide can mix with it and it also prevents the mor- 
tar from cracking when it gets hard. 

Plaster for Walls. — Plaster is simply mortar. 
Three different kinds of it are used for walls, and 
these are (1) coarse stuff, (2) fine stuff and (3) 
gauged stuff. 

U 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

Coarse stuff is common mortar with hair mixed 
in it to bind it together. It is formed of 6 parts of 
lime, 12 of sand and 1 of hair. It is the first coat 
of plaster put on the lath, and the plasterer calls this 
rendering. 

Fine stuff is made by mixing lime with water until 
it is about as thick as cream. After it has settled, 
the water is drained off. When the lime paste has 
hardened a little, a very small quantity of sand is 
mixed with it; it is then put over the coarse stuff, 
and this is called floating. 

Gauged stuff is made by mixing 1 part of plaster 
of Paris with 4 parts of fine stuff. The plaster of 
Paris makes the stuff set very quickly, and so no 
more must be mixed at a time than you can put on 
before it gets hard. It is plastered over the fine stuff 
and is the last coat, or finish, and is called setting. 

About Laying Brick. — In bricklaying a course is 
a continuous layer of bricks in a horizontal line, and 
a bond means the method used in laying the bricks 
in courses. 

There are four chief bonds used in building brick 
structures, and these are (1) common bond, (2) 
Flemish bond, (3) English bond and (4) cross bond, 
all of which are shown in Fig. 13. 

When you lay up a brick wall, the first thing to 
do is to have the foundation on which the courses are 
laid perfectly level. To find whether the top surface 
of the foundation and of the wall as you lay it are 
level, you must use a level, and to ascertain if the 

35 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

side of the wall is plumb an upright level or a plumb 
must be used. The construction of the level will be 
found in Chapter I. How to make square corners 
is also shown under the caption of Tape Measures 
in Chapter I. 

1 I I 1 f 



r_i 



A 



COMMON BOWD 



I . , 1 I, ,1 



czfi 



B 






FLEMJSH BO//D ENGLISH BONO CROSS B OND 

Fig. 13. — Kinds op Bonds Used in Laying Bricks 

Measuring Brickwork. — The thickness of a brick 
wall is the number of bricks or half -bricks that it is 
built of. Brickwork is estimated by the thousand. 
The term superficial foot is used by masons and 
means square feet of surface. Walls of various 
thicknesses run like this : 

TABLE 



Thickness of Wall 


Number of Bricks Thick 


Number of Bricks per 
Superficial Foot 


834 inches 

17 

21H 


l 
Hi 

2 


14 
21 
28 
35 



36 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 



Stone and Stonework. — There are three kinds of 
stone used for building purposes, and these are (1) 
field stone, (2) rubble and (3) cut stone. They are 
laid either in (a) the rough, (b) in ashlar, or (c) in 
courses, as shown in Fig. 14. 





E/ELDSTONE RUBBLE 



CUTSTONE 






i—r-r 





ROUGH STONE ASHLAR COURSES 

Fig. 14. — Kinds of Stone and Stonework 

By field stone is meant stones that are found on 
the surface of the ground, which are used just as they 
are picked up. Bubble is pieces of stone of all shapes 
and sizes as they come from the quarry, and cut 
stone is, of course, stone that is cut to shape and 
size in the quarry. 

To lay field stone means to lay them in mortar 
or cement as they may fit best together. Ashlar is 
laid up in any order that the mason fancies, while 
cut stone is laid in courses. 

Mortar fpr Stonework. — As the strength of stone- 
37 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

work depends largely on the mortar that is used, 
it is better to use a Portland cement mortar than a 
mortar made of lime. A good cement mortar can 
be made by mixing 1 bag of Portland cement and 2 
or 3 cubic feet of sand with enough water to give 
it the right consistency. This will make from 2.1 
to 2.8 cubic feet of mortar. 

Measuring Stonework. — The unit by which stone- 
work is measured is the perch., which is equal to 24J 
cubic feet. All openings less than 3 feet are counted 
as solid and all openings over 3 feet are subtracted 
from the walls measured, while for each jamb you 
add 18 inches to the linear measure. 

Corners of buildings must be measured twice ; pil- 
lars are figured by adding up three sides linear and 
then multiplying the sum by its fourth side and 
depth. The usual method of measuring foundations 
and sizes of stone is by the cubic foot. Base courses 
and water tables are measured by lineal feet; sills 
and ashlar are measured by superficial feet. 

Stucco for Buildings. — Stucco is simply a mor- 
tar made of Portland cement, sand, lime and water 
and when rightly made it is enduring as the ages. It 
is used as a plaster for the outside walls of build- 
ings and makes a beautiful fire-resisting structure 
built at a low cost and with no expense for upkeep. 

Ways of Using Stucco. — There are three ways of 
applying stucco and these are (1) on wood sheathing, 
(2) on ribbed metal lath and (3) on brick, stone, 
tile and cement blocks. Where sheathing is used it 

38 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 



is covered with sheathing paper, then furring strips 
are put on upright over it, and either wood or ordi- 
nary metal lath is nailed across the furring strips, as 
shown at A and B in Fig. 15. 

Where sheathing is not used, ribbed metal lath is 
nailed on the studding direct, with the ribs inward, 
and the stucco is plastered on both the front and 

FURRING STRIPS 
\/ \ I ,U?TH 



PtfPER 



SHEETING. 




rrr 



•ll^' 



1_L 



1=3 



rrr 



FURRING 
STRIPS 
Fig. 15. — How Stucco is Put On 

back of it until it is about 2 inches thick. When it 
sets you will have a wall as hard as adamant of reen- 
forced Portland cement mortar. The tools needed 
are shown in Fig. 16. Brick, stone, tile or cement 
can also be given a coat of stucco, but the surface 
must be rough enough to make it hey, that is to stick 
tight. 

Putting on Stucco Mortar. — Three coats of stucco 
mortar must be put on to make a good job. The first 

39 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

coat, which is put on the face of the lath, and the 
second coat, which is put on the back of the lath, 
should each be f inch thick, while the last and finish- 
ing coat should be J inch thick. 

When stucco is put on ribbed lath, the first front 
and back coats should be from § to ^ inch thick, and 
the finish coat J inch thick. 

How to Make Stucco Mortar. — For the first two 
coats of stucco mix 3 parts of sand with 1 part of 
Portland cement by volume. For the finish coat 
mix 2i parts of sand with 1 part of Portland cement 
and tV part of lime. 

Use a water-tight platform to mix the stucco on 
so that, after you have the right amount of water 
for mixing, it will not leak away. Sometimes hair 
or fiber is used for the first coat of stucco, as in 
ordinary mortar. If either is used, it is mixed in 
after the mortar is made. Mix the mortar until it 
is smooth and is of the same color throughout. 2 

Building with Concrete.— Concrete is your 
building material, by which I mean that you can 
build any ordinary structure of it with the help of 
common labor. 

It is timeproof, waterproof and fireproof and, 
though it costs a little more than wood in the first 
place, it does not cost anything for paint and re- 
pairs after it is built. It is different from brick 

2 If you are interested in building a stucco home, a garage 
or a barn, write the Atlas Portland Cement Co., 30 Broad 
Street, New York, and they will send you plans and specifica- 
tions without cost 

40 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

and stone in that you can always get the materials 
to make concrete wherever you live. 

What Concrete Is. — Concrete is made up of four 
materials and these are (1) Portland cement, (2) 
sand, (3) stone or gravel and (4) water. It is called 
Portland cement because it is about the same color 
as the limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, 
England. 

It is made by heating limestone, clay and sand, or 
blast furnace slag, until they are changed into a 
powder and when this is mixed with water it will 
set hard and water will not affect it in any way. 
Portland cement is manufactured in great mills 
where it is packed in bags which hold about 1 cubic 
foot each. It is then shipped to the four quarters 
of the globe, so you will have no trouble in buying 
it wherever you are. 

Materials for Concrete. — Testing Portland Ce- 
ment. — Before the cement is used it must be kept 
perfectly dry or it will absorb moisture and get hard. 

Sometimes when bags of cement are piled on each 
other, the cement will cake, but this does not injure 
it in any way. To test cement that is lumpy, pinch 
a piece of it between your fingers and see if it will 
break up ; if it will not, it is useless for concrete. 

Testing Sand. — Sand, or fine aggregate, as it is 
called, must not have any loam, clay or other impuri- 
ties in it. The particles that form it must not be 
too large to pass through a sieve with \ inch meshes. 

To test sand for impurities, take a little while it 
41 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

is still moist from where it is dug and rub it between 
the palms of jour hands. If it does not soil them it 
is free enough from loam to use, but if it does, it 
must be washed by shoveling it onto a screen and 
washing it down with water. 

Crushed Stone or Gravel. — Either gravel or 
crushed stone, or coarse aggregate, as it is called, 
can be used for concrete. It must be clean, free 
from impurities, and should not be less than J inch 
in size and never more than half the thickness of 
the concrete you are placing. Finally, well water 
is the best kind to use for making concrete. 

Mixtures of Concrete and Where to Use Them. 
— The following mixtures are largely used and will 
give satisfaction for the purposes named. 

A Rich Mixture. — Use 1 part of cement, 1-J parts 
of sand and 3 parts of coarse aggregate; this makes 
a good cement for waterproof buildings and roads. 

The Standard Mixture. — Use 1 part of cement, 2 
parts of sand and 4 parts of coarse aggregate. Use- 
ful for floors, roofs, tanks, conduits, sewers and reen- 
forced work. 

A Medium Mixture. — Use 1 part of cement, 2J 
parts of sand and 5 parts of coarse aggregate. Large- 
ly used for foundations, piers, walls, etc. 

A Lean Mixture. — Use 1 part of cement, 3 parts 
of sand and 6 parts of coarse aggregate. Good for 
backing stone masonry, massive concrete work and 
large foundations. 

. .Mixing Concrete.— The materials of which con- 

42 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

crete is made can be mixed either (1) by hand, or 
(2) by machine. It should be mixed close to the 
place where you are going to use it ; otherwise it will 
set before you can place it. For ordinary work it 
should be about as thick as jelly, and it should be 
mixed just as mortar is. 

Placing Concrete.— There are two ways to use 

WIRE NETTING 
'A'MESH 





'OOP 

FLOAT FOR FINISHING 

OFF CONCRETE 

SCREEN FOR SA WD 

Fig. 16. — The Only Tools You Need for Concrete 
Work 

concrete for building and these are (1) to mold it 
in forms, and (2) to cast it in Modes. 

To make a form for a wall, build up two sides of 
boards 1 inch thick and brace them so that the space 
between them is as thick as you want the wall, as 
shown at A in Fig. 17. The way to make forms for 
a pier and for steps is shown at B and C. 

Rub soap or crude oil on the inside of the form 
and pour the concrete mixture into it. It will take 
from two days to a week for the concrete to set hard 
and then you can take off the form. 

Concrete blocks, as shown in Fig. 18, are molded 
43 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

either hollow or in solid veneer and they are easy to 
make and set. If you are interested in building with 
them, write to the Ideal Concrete Machinery Com- 
pany of South Bend, Indiana, for a free booklet of 
their machines and equipment. 




FORM FOR MAKING 
DUPUCmEPJFRS 




FORMS FOR MAKING 
/) WALL 



FORMS FOR CONCRETF 
STEPS 



Fig. 17. — Forms for Placing Concrete 



Finishing Concrete Surfaces.— Ordinary con- 
crete work does not have to be finished, but you can 
improve the surfaces of walls by rubbing them with a 
cement mortar trick, made of 1 part of cement and 
2 parts of sand, and keeping it flushed with water 

44 



WHEN YOU BUILD YOUR HOUSE 

while you are doing it. Designs for forms of all 
kinds can be had for the asking by writing to the 



PLAIN BLOCK 




BUSH HAMMERED 
DESIGN 




TOOLED MARGIN 
DESIGN 




COBBLE STONE 
DESIGN 



Fig. 18— Some Concrete Block Designs 



Atlas Portland Cement Company, 30 Broad Street, 
New York. 



CHAPTEE III 
A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

In these days of power and pumps, the scheme of 
carrying water from a well to supply the kitchen and 
of taking a bath in a washtub on Saturday night is 
as out-of-date and about twice as barbarous as cook- 
ing in a fireplace. 

But however or wherever the water comes from, 
disease germs are more than likely to be carried by 
it, and as it is your first duty to safeguard the health 
of your home you must know to a certainty that the 
water supply is absolutely pure. 

Kinds of Water Supplies.— There are three 
kinds of water supplies, or places from which to get 
water, and these are (1) surface, (2) shallow under- 
ground and (3) deep underground supplies. 

The surface supplies are the ponds, streams, rivers 
and cisterns and all of these are very apt to be 
polluted with disease germs. This untoward con- 
dition is largely due to contamination from sewage, 
that is, the sewage is either emptied into them or 
else seeps into them from nearby sources. What- 
ever you do, don't use water from a surface supply 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

for drinking, or cooking, or even washing dishes, 
unless it has been thoroughly purified first. 

The water of shallow wells is also often disease 
bearing, but deep wells are very seldom so. In any 
event, remember that water which looks perfectly 
clear may have disease germs in it. 

How to Purify Water. — By Boiling. — A simple 
and sure way to get rid of all the germs in water is 
to boil it; but it is not enough to merely bring the 
water to a boil, for a typhoid germ is as immune to 
heat as an asbestos cat. Boiling the water for 15 
minutes or so will kill most of the germs, but to be 
sure that all of them are killed the water must be 
boiled twice. 

By Filtration. — A great deal of impure matter in 
water can be removed from it by filtering, that is, 
by straining it through some kind of porous material. 
Filters that are made to screw on to the faucet re- 
move some of the impurities, but most of the germs 
go on through. 

Filters made of charcoal, sand and gravel * remove 
nearly all the impurities, but still some of the germs 
get through. By adding a very small amount of 
alum to the water the impurities and nearly all the 
germs will stick to the particles of it which then 
fall to the bottom, or are precipitated, as it is called. 

1 A complete description of a cheap and good filter of this 
kind, with drawings, is given in my "Home Handy Book,'' 
published by D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

47 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

The Pasteur filter 2 is a good one for the house- 
hold. The water flows in through the top and its 
weight forces it through an unglazed porcelain 
cylinder, the top end of which is closed. To make 
the filter effective the cylinder must he taken out 

WATER MUT 



UNGLflZEP 
PORCEUM 
CYLINDER- 



STEEL 
CYLINDER, 



\ OUTLET 



Fig. 19. — The Pasteur Water Filter 



every day and the mud and slime scrubbed off with 
a brush. Otherwise it will form a breeding place 
for the germs instead of purifying the water. It 
is shown in Fig. 19. 

By Distillation. — To distill water on a large scale 

a Sold by the Consolidated Filters Co., 136 West 65th Street, 
New York. 

48 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

requires a costly apparatus, but a small still can be 
easily made tbat will distill enough drinking water 
for the family. 

The still is formed of (1) a boiler holding a couple 
of gallons of water, which sets on a stove, and (2) 
a condenser hung from the ceiling; a pipe connects 
the boiler and the condenser and carries the steam 
from the former to the latter. The condenser is 
made of an inverted funnel with a large pipe soldered 
to the mouth of it, while around the funnel is a 
vessel filled with water. 

The lower end of the pipe is closed and a faucet 
leads from it to a covered bucket. The construction 
of the still is shown in Fig. 20. 

The still should be made of heavily tinned copper, 
and no solder should be used on the inside of the 
seams. Now when the steam passes into the con- 
denser from the boiler, it strikes the funnel and the 
cold water which surrounds it condenses it when it 
trickles down the large pipe and can be drawn off ; 
into the bucket as it is required. 

The Amount of Water Needed. —The amount 
of water used will, of course, depend on the size of 
the family and, if you live on a farm, on the kind 
and number of stock you have. 

It takes on an average of from 25 to 40 gallons 
of water a day to keep each member of the family 
supplied with enough to drink, to cook with and to 
bathe in; hence a water supply for a family of five 

49 



COVERS MR VENT 

COOLING WATER 

COLLECTOR 
CONDENSER 




STEAMPJPE 




«=l DISTILLED 
!=«- WATER 



1 



/7zx#? 



^ 



=/ 



loftse 



BUCKET 



□ 



STOVE" 



□ 



ff 



Pig. 20. — A Home-made Water Distilling Apparatus 



50 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

or six should have a tank, if one is used, with a 
capacity of something over 200 gallons. 

Where there is stock, each cow needs about 12 
gallons ; each horse about 10 gallons ; each hog about 
2J gallons; each sheep about 2 gallons, and there 
must be a small surplus for the dog and the cat If 
you intend to sprinkle the lawn and the garden and 
have fire protection, allowance must also be made for 
an additional supply. 

Schemes for a Water Supply.— There are three 
schemes in general use by which you can have run- 
ning water in your house and on your farm and 
these are (1) the gravity system, (2) the air pres- 
sure or pneumatic system and (3) the automatic 
air pressure or auto-pneumatic system. 

The Gravity System.— In this system the water 
is pumped either by hand or power into a tank set as 
high as possible ; this is usually in the attic, as shown 
in Tig. 21, or on the tower of a windmill. The 
tank can be of wood or steel and either in the shape 
of a cylinder or a rectangle. Wood tanks should be 
made of cedar or cypress and these can be lined with 
tinned copper, but lead must not be used. 

The Air Pressure or Pneumatic System.— In 
this system an air-tight steel tank is set in the base- 
ment, or in an underground vault, 3 and it is con- 
nected with the cistern or well by a force pump. 

The water is then pumped into the tank against 

•This keeps it cool in summer and prevents it from freez- 
ing in the winter. 

51 




t ^UflBggS-a 



Fig. 21. — A Gravity Water System 



52 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

the air that is in it. This compresses the air, and 
the pressure set up will force the water through the 
pipes to a height of a hundred feet or so. The tank 
is fitted with a water gauge and an air pressure 




ZilR 
W/fTER 



PRESSURE GfiUGS 
/yy/?TERG0l/GE 




Fig. 22. — The Hydro-Pneumatic System 



gauge* so that you can see at a glance the amount 
of water there is in the tank and what the air pres- 
sure in pounds in it is. The outfit is shown in Fig. 

22. 

4 A description of both of these gauges will be found in 
Chapter V. 

53 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

The tank can be set up on end, that is, upright, 
or lengthwise, that is, in a horizontal position, ac- 
cording to the room you have. The size of the tank 
will, as before, depend, of course, on the amount of 
water needed. A 220 gallon tank is about as large 
as you can use to advantage with a hand pump, and 
this will supply a family of five or six, provided all 
of them do not take a bath every day. In figuring 
the size of the tank, allow ^ of the space for the com- 
pressed air. 

As water absorbs the compressed air in the tank, 
means must be provided to supply air to the tank. 
This is done either by (1) an air inlet valve in the 
suction pipe of the p^mp, (2) by using a combined 
air and water pump or (3) by a separate air com- 
pressor run by an engine or other motive power. 

How to Figure the Capacity of a Tank.— 
To find the quantity of water a cylindrical tank will 
hold, figure it this way: 

C = D 2 X 0.7854 X d X 7.48 

where C is the capacity in gallons of the tank you 
want to find, 
D 2 is the diameter of the tank in feet squared, 
0.7854 is a constant, 
d is the depth of the tank in feet, and 
7.48 is the number of gallons in a cubic foot. 

To find the quantity of water a rectangular tank 
will hold, use this formula : 

C = LXWXDX 7.48 
54 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

where C is the capacity in gallons of the tank 
which you want to find, 
L is the length of the tank, 
W is the width of the tank, 
D is the depth of the tank, and 
7.48 is the number of gallons in a cubic foot. 

The Weight of Water.— In putting up a tank, 
due consideration must be given to its weight on the 
structure supporting it, when it is full of water. 
Knowing that the weight of a gallon of water is 8.4 
pounds and that a cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 
pounds, it is easy to find the total weight of water in 
either a cylindrical or a rectangular tank. 

The Automatic Air, or Auto-pneumatic Sys- 
tem.— As its name indicates, this system is worked 
by compressed air which automatically delivers the 
water direct from a lake or river, cistern or well, to 
the faucets where it is to be used. The water, of 
course, must be free from dirt. 

The apparatus consists of (1) an engine or mo- 
tive power of some kind, (2) an air compressor, 
(3) a steel air tank and (4) an auto-pneumatic wa- 
ter pump. The engine drives the compressor which 
pumps the tank full of air to a pressure of from 40 
to 100 pounds per square inch. The air tank is con- 
nected directly with a pipe line to the pump, which 
is placed near the bottom of the well or cistern. 

Since the air in the air tank is under a high pres- 
sure and the water pump works on a low pressure, a 

55 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

reducing valve is placed in the pipe line to lower the 
pressure of the air and make it flow in a steady stream 
to the pump. 

The pump is the chief part of the outfit and is 
formed of two steel cylinders. These are connected 
at the upper ends to the compressed air tank. In the 
bottom of each cylinder is an inlet valve for the water 



EXHAUST \M 
WLVE VALVE 
ClOSEH OP£N_ 



pOMPRE$t 
\EPAIH 

WATER- 

INLET 
VALVE 
'CLOSED- 



FROM COMPRESSED 

AIR VALVE CLOSED? 
EXHAUST 

Y/i LYE OPEN 



A 




CYLINDER"/)* CYLINDER'S 
DISCHARGING EXHAUSTING 
WATER., ANDRE-FILLING 



Fig. 23A.— The Auto-Pneumatic Water Pump 



to flow from the well or cistern, as in any force pump. 
Each cylinder is also fitted with an air exhaust valve 
and, when the pump is submerged in the water, the 
pipes from the exhaust valves project above the sur- 
face of the water. Finally, each cylinder is con- 
nected to the delivery pipe which carries the water to 
the faucets. The operation of the system will be 
readily understood from Fig. 23. 

56 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

About Pumps and Pumping.— Kinds of Pumps. 
— There are three kinds of pumps that are used for 
kome and farm pumping and these are (1) the lift 
or suction pump, (2) the force pump and (3) the 
centrifugal pump. The lift pump is usually worked 




COMPRESSED 
/?/R P/PE 



CISTERN W//TEX 



CISTERN WATER 
P/PE 



B 



AUTO PNEUM/JT/C 
PUMP 



Fig. 23B. — The Auto-Pneumatic Water System 



by hand; the force pump is worked either by hand 
or power; and the centrifugal pump is usually oper- 
ated by power. 

A lift pump, of which a cross section is shown at 
A in Fig. 24, consists of a cylinder, a piston, a couple 
of valves and a suction pipe whose lower end dips 
below the level of the water in the cistern or well. 

57 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

When the piston is worked, the air from the pipe is 
pumped out and then the air pressing on the sur- 
face of the water pushes it up through the pipe and 
through the lower valve into the barrel. 

When the piston moves down again, the lower valve 
closes and the water in the cylinder opens the piston 
valve as the piston sinks below it. As the piston 




fiUFT PUMP 



3 

A FORCE. PUMP- 



fi CENTRIFUGAL 

pvnp 



Fig. 24. — Kinds of Pumps 



is again raised it lifts the water on top of it to the 
spout, and, at the same time, the pressure of the air 
forces more water up through the suction pipe. 

A force pump, shown at B, is usually made with a 
solid piston. The upper valve is set in the outlet 
pipe which opens below the piston. When the piston 
moves up, water is drawn up into the cylinder by 
atmospheric pressure ; when it moves down, the valve 
in the suction pipe is closed and the water is forced 
through the upper valve into the discharge pipe. 

When the piston is raised again, the valve in the 
58 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

outlet pipe is closed so that the water above cannot 
flow back. At the same time the pressure of the 
air forces more water from the well into the cylinder. 

A centrifugal pump is a rotary pump, that is, it 
consists of a number of curved blades fixed to and 
radiating from a shaft, like the spokes of a wheel 
from the hub. 

These blades slide against the sides and the inside 
rim of the pump case. This prevents the water from 
leaking between the blades and the case when it 
is pumping. The intake water pipe is placed in or 
near the center of the case and, as the water flows 
into it, the swiftly revolving blades throw it out by 
centrifugal force into the delivery pipe. It is shown 
in cross section at C. 

The Action of Pumps.— The Lift Pump.— A lift 
pump will only lift water effectively about 20 feet 
because it depends on atmospheric pressure, and 
hence the cylinder of a lift pump must not be set 
higher than this distance above the level of the water 
in the well or cistern. 

A good way to get rid of the suction lift is to have 
the cylinder close to the water, or submerge it, if 
this can be done, as this keeps the pump primed all 
the time. As the lift of the water above the piston 
does not depend on atmospheric pressure, a pump of 
this kind can be used for greater depths. Pump 
cylinders are made which will go into wells as small 
as 2 inches in diameter. 

The Force Pump. — Water can be raised to any 
59 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

height by means of a force pump. The purpose of 
the air chamber on a force pump is to make the water 
flow in a continuous stream through the delivery pipe. 

In this case, when the water is forced into the air 
chamber, it covers the mouth of the delivery pipe 
and, as it rises, it compresses the air that is in the 
chamber. The pressure of it soon becomes great 
enough to force the water through the delivery pipe 
in a steady stream. 

The Centrifugal Pump. — As the blades of a cen- 
trifugal pump do not fit air-tight, it is not positive 
in its action, like a valve pump. It will not, there- 
fore, exhaust the air from the suction line, so it must 
be primed every time before it is started, no matter 
how small the suction is. 

To prime the pump, it must be at rest and both 
the suction pipe and the pump case must be filled 
with water. A small centrifugal pump will then 
only lift water 10 or 15 feet, but it will deliver it 
to a height of 35 feet or so. These pumps are largely 
used for pumping water to boilers in steam heating 
plants. 

To Prevent Pipes from Freezing.— Where a 
water pipe extends above the ground or is above the 
frost level, it must be protected from freezing and 
this can be done with a frost box. 

To make this covering build three box tabes around 
the pipe, as long as the part of it you want to pro- 
tect, and cover the outside of each one with tar 
paper. Have an air space of 6 inches all round be- 

60 



A WATER SYSTEM FOR YOUR PLACE 

tween the inside and the pipe and an air space of 2 
inches between each of the other two boxes. Keep 
the boxes separated from each other by blocks or 
trimmers, and you will have a good insulation against 
the cold. Ordinary pipe coverings will not keep 
water pipes that are out of doors from freezing. 

To prevent underground water pipes from freez- 
ing, the pipes must be buried to a depth of 3 or 4 
feet. 

When a Water Pipe Is Frozen. — Where an ex- 
posed pipe freezes, wrap woolen cloths around the 
frozen part and pour hot water on it until it thaws. 
If an underground pipe freezes, you will have to dig 
down to it and thaw it out. If it is a large pipe, 
you can do this by building a fire around it. If a 
lead pipe bursts, it can be soldered, but if an iron 
pipe bursts a new length of pipe will have to be put 
in. 

A Word on Plumbing and Sewage.— Plumb- 
ing. — It is easy to do your own plumbing, for the days 
of lead pipe with the trouble of making wiped joints 
are over; instead iron pipe in all sizes and with all 
the necessary fittings can be bought ready to put 
together. 5 

Use 1 or 1£ inch pipe for the main piping to the 
supply tanks. The table on the next page shows the 
sizes of pipes required for various branches. 

Make all joints and fittings water-tight with red 

s Write Sears, Roebuck and Co. for their catalogue on Plumb- 
ing. 

61 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



TABLE 



Branches from Main Pipe Inches Branches from Main Pipe Inches 



To basin cocks 

" bath " 

" water closet flush 

tank 

" water closet flush 

valve 



Mtol 
ltolM 



To water closet 

flush pipes 

For kitchen sinks . . 
For pantry sinks. . 
To slop sinks 



l^tolH 
%toM 

«toB£ 



lead. Have a drain cock at the lowest point in the 
system so that you can let out the water in cold 
weather to prevent the pipes from freezing and burst- 
ing. Also keep the hot water pipes far enough away 
from the cold pipes to prevent an exchange of heat 
between them. 

Sewage. — Sewage must be disposed of by a septic 
tank system. In this system the sewage empties in 
an air-tight tank which is connected to a second tank 
by an overflow pipe. The first tank is large enough 
so that it does not overflow for about 12 hours. The 
germs formed in the sewage in this air-tight tank 
partly decompose it when it is discharged into the 
second tank, where it undergoes a like purification. 
It can then be discharged to the outside air free from 
obnoxious odors. 



CHAPTER IV 
A HEATING PLANT FOR YOUR HOME 

There are many kinds of forces that perform 
amazing feats, and one of the most active of these 
is heat 

What Heat Is. — The most common way of pro- 
ducing heat is by burning something, or combustion, 
as it is called. Combustion is caused by chemical 
action. 

As an illustration take oxygen and carbon. These 
two substances have a great attraction for each other, 
and, if you can get a large quantity of oxygen and a 
lot of carbon stored up separately, you have the means 
for making a fire and hence of generating heat. 

Now air is formed of £ part by volume of oxygen, 
so yon always have a supply of this gas at hand. 
As coal is nearly pure carbon, you can get a supply 
of this (sometimes) if you have the money. Here, 
then, are your separate stores of these combustible 
chemicals, and all you need to do to start the chemical 
action of combustion is to ignite them. 

When combustion is going on, the particles, or 
molecules, as they are called, of oxygen and carbon 
combine and they vibrate at a rapid rate. These 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



rapid to and fro motions impinging on our sense of 
feeling set up the sensation that we call heat. 
What Temperature Means.— Heat and tempera- 



Fig. 25.- 



ziz- 

1 


\_30tUNG C 
'- POINT " 


-ioo 


zoo - 

/90- 




-90 


/80- 
170- 




-do 


/60- 
150- 




-70 


/40~ 
130- 




-60 


/ZO- 




-50 


//O- 






JOO- 




-40 


]90~ 

eo- 




-30 


70- 
60- 




-zo\ 


50- 




-J& 


40- 
3Z- 


freezvhg 

- PO/NT 


-0 


zo- 

(0- 




-to 


0- 

. 4 

FXHREHh 


f£/T cs/m 


r 

'GRftDB 


•Fahrenheit a 


LND CeNTIGR, 


iDE Scales Compared 



lure mean two entirely different things, though they 
are very closely related. 

Temperature is not only the degree to which a 
64 



A HEATING PLANT FOR YOUR HOME 

body is heated but, in physics, it is defined as thai 
property of a body which determines the transfer of 
its heat to some other body. 

When a body gives out heat, its temperature falls 
and, conversely, when a body receives heat its tem- 
perature rises. Temperature is measured by ther- 
mometers, and these are graduated in different ways. 
On all of them, however, there are two fixed points, 
namely, (1) the freezing point and (2) the boilmg 
point. 

The Fahrenheit thermometer scale is the one used 
in this country for all ordinary temperature measure- 
ments and. the centigrade scale is used for all scien- 
tific measurements. Both of these scales are shown 
in Fig. 25, and are marked like this : 



Minimum and maximum points 


Fahrenheit 


Centigrade 


Freezing point 


32 degrees 
212 degrees 


degrees 


Boiling point 


100 degrees 







How Heat Warms a Room.— When you have 
a body that is heated to a higher temperature than 
another body near to it, the heat from the warm body 
always passes to the cool body until the heat, and 
consequently the temperature, of both are the same. 

Thus if a room is heated to a temperature of 68 
degrees Fahrenheit and the air outside is colder, the 
heat will leak through the windows and walls and, 

65 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

unless more heat is constantly supplied to the room, 
its temperature will fall. 

How Heat Is Measured.— Since heat is a force, 
it can be measured quite as exactly as wind, water, 
steam or electricity. 

Just as the unit of English lineal measure is the 
inch and the unit of weight is the pound, so also the 
unit of heat is the British thermal unit, or B. T. U., 
as it is called for short, and this is the amount of 
heat that is needed to raise the temperature of 1 
pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit. 

About Heating and Ventilating.— On first 
thought heating and ventilating may seem to have 
little in common, yet a supply of pure, fresh air is 
even more necessary than a supply of hot air. But 
when you get both of them together you have the 
ideal conditions that make for health and comfort. 

Since this is true, in planning a house you should 
provide for ventilating it at the same time that you 
consider the best way of heating it, for the air sup- 
ply should be heated before it is admitted to the 
rooms. 

Kinds of Heating Plants.— There are seven ways 
a building can be heated, and named, these are (1) 
by fireplaces, (2) by stoves, (3) by hot air fwrnaces 
(4) by hot water systems, (5) by steam heating 
plants, (6) by gas burners and (7) by electric heat- 
ing apparatus. 

The Cozy Fireplace. — Next to a fire in the center 
of a wigwam with a hole in its top for the smoke 

G6 



A HEATING PLANT FOR YOUR HOME 

to get out, the fireplace is the oldest scheme of man 
to heat his abode. 

Fireplaces are used in present day homes chiefly 
for the cheer and comfort they offer. They are very 
wasteful of fuel, for 85 per cent of the stored up 
energy of the wood or coal goes up the chimney; 
hut they are good ventilators, for the chimney makes 
a draft and this pulls fresh air into the room. 

To get the best results, fireplaces should he lined 
with brick, and where grates are used they should 
be set well above the level of the floor. 

The Cheap Old Stove. — Since a stove is cheap, 
portable and far more efficient than a fireplace, it has 
all but supplanted the latter in the cheaper houses. 
The bad features about a stove are that it dries the 
moisture out of a room, it does not draw in any fresh 
air, and it makes a lot of dirt. The best thing that 
can be said of a stove is that it uses 50 per cent or 
more of the heating energy of the fuel it burns. 

The Hot Air Furnace. — To get rid of the trouble 
and dirt of fireplaces and stoves, some genius got up 
the scheme of hot air heating. 

In this system a furnace is used which has a double 
shell; the fire is built on a grate in the inside one, 
or fire pot, and air is drawn in between it and the 
outer shell or casing, where it is heated. The hot 
air then passes through large pipes in the top of the 
furnace, Or dome, as shown in Fig. 26, where it flows 
into the various rooms through iron openings, called 
registers, set in the floors or baseboards. The regis- 

67 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

ters are fitted with valves by which the heat can be 
turned on or cut off. 

Heating detached houses by hot air is seldom satis- 
factory, for it is always hard to heat the rooms on 
the side against which the wind blows. This can 



HOT/P/R 



<1 



3: 




Fig. 26. — How a Hot Am Furnace Works 



often be remedied by installing a fan in the pipe 
leading to the cold room. If you are putting in a 
hot air system, be sure you use a furnace big enough 
and that the pipes are large enough. Hot air sys- 
tems are cheaper to install than hot water or steam 
systems, and they are very simple to operate. 

68 



A HEATING PLANT FOR YOUR HOME 

The Hot Water System. — There are several kinjs 
of hot water heating systems, but the gravity or low 
pressure system is generally used for heating homes. 

There are two chief kinds of low pressure systems 
and these are (1) the one pipe system and (2) the 



EXPANS/OH 
TANK 





Fig. 27. — A One Pipe Hot Water System 



two pipe system. The one pipe system is the cheap- 
est to install and it will give you very good service. 
The two pipe system takes twice as much piping 
and more labor to put in and besides it is apt to short 
circuit unless the work is well done. 

Either kind is easy to take care of, and they make 
it possible to regulate the temperature. A hot water 

69 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

system costs more than a steam heating plant, be- 
cause the pipes and the radiators must be larger, 
but it is more economical in fuel consumption. 

In putting in a one pipe system, have the piping 
all of one size. The horizontal supply pipes that 




Fir. 28. — A Two Pipe Hot Water System 

branch off from the main circuit, as shown in Fig. 
27, should be short, or, if they have to be long, then 
give them as much pitch as you can. A two pipe 
system is shown in Fig. 28. 

Steam Heating Plants. — There are several kinds 
of steam heating systems, but the one that is in gen- 
eral use in this country is the low pressure live steam 
system. 

70 



A HEATING PLANT FOR YOUR HOME 



A low pressure steam boiler is made just about 
the same as a hot water boiler, but it is fitted 
with a steam gauge, water gauge and safety valve 
which operates the damper to regulate it. 




AUTOMATIC V?/R 
VALVE FOR 
RAD/4TOR 





Fig. 29. — A One Pipe Steam Heating System 

As in hot water heating, there are two schemes of 
piping used, namely, (1) the one pipe system and 
(2) the two pipe system. In the one pipe system, 
and this is the one that is most widely used, a single 

71 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

pipe leads off from the main line and is connected to 
the bottom of the radiator which has a small auto- 
matic valve on the opposite side, as shown in Fig. 
29. The pressure of steam is usually only about 4 
or 5 pounds per square inch, and this is measured by 
a steam gauge. 

The main pipe line should have a fall of 1 inch 





X 



W/1TERUNI 



Pk 






Fig. 30. — A Two Pipe Steam Heating System 



in every 10 feet, and the pitch should be such that 
the live steam and the water which condenses from 
it will flow through the pipe in the same direction. 
An automatic air valve is fitted in the top of the 
riser to let the air that collects in the main line pipe 
escape. 

In this system the radiators are connected on one 
side with the main line of pipe and on the other 
with the return pipe, as shown in Fig. 29. Where 

72 



A HEATING PLANT FOR YOUR HOME 

this system is used the pipes can be of smaller 
diameter than with the one pipe system. The lower 
part of the pipe line of a steam heating plant should 
always be even. Fig. 30 shows a two pipe line steam 
heating system. 

Noise in Steam Pipes. — The reason steam pipes 
crack and pound is because the hot steam strikes on 
the cold pipe or water caught in traps or pockets in 
the pipe. When it is the latter, the cold water con- 
denses the steam and this forms a vacuum which pulls 
the water toward it with great force. 

The chief thing you want to look after in installing 
a steam heating plant is to give the pipes sufficient 
pitch to carry off all the water formed in them and 
not to have any uneven places or pockets to catch 
the water. 

To Find the Size of Heater Needed.— The size 
of a hot air furnace, a hot water heater or a steam 
boiler needed to heat a house can be found in several 
ways. 

The simplest method depends on the cubic con- 
tents of the building to be heated and this is found 
by multiplying the total exposure of the house by 50 
and dividing it by 30,000 and the result will be the 
number of square feet needed for the grate. 

Gas Heaters. — Gas is used in nearly every city 
for cooking ranges, but it is used only to heat houses 
with as a makeshift, except in districts where there is 
natural gas. 

Electric Heating Apparatus.— Where water 
73 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

power is to be Lad, as at Niagara Falls and Boise, 
Idaho, electricity can be generated cheaply enough to 
be used to heat houses. But where fuel must be 
burned to generate it, electric heating of homes is all 
but out of the question. 



WARM 
FRESH-* 



RROMWR- 




COLD 
FRESH 
MR 



Fig. 31. — How to Get Good Ventilation 



How to Get Good Ventilation.— Should you 

plan to build a house and intend to use either hot 
water or steam to heat it, you can have ventilating 
ducts put in the walls so that the fresh outside air 
will pass between the columns of the radiators and 
reach the room in a heated condition. The scheme 
is shown in Fig. 31. 



CHAPTER V 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 



When you look at a complicated machine it hardly 
seems on first sight to he huilt up of just two simple 
mechanical principles, or powers, as they are called, 
but this is, nevertheless, true. 

How Machines Are Made.— These two powers 
are (a) the lever and (b) the inclined plane, and 



WEIGHT POWER 
r-/ LEVER 

> FULCRUM 
THELEVER 



. POWER 

*^Sj,9^ wheel 



\r m 



B 



^HXLE 



THE WHEEL 
flND #XLE 




PULLEY 



'EIGHT 



POWER. 



THE PULLEY 





THE INCLINED PLANE 

THE SCREW 

Fig. 32. — The Six Simple Machines 



both have been so improved that, including them, six 
fundamental mechanical movements, or simple 
machines, as they are termed in physics, are the re- 

75 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

suit. The names of these simple machines are (1) 
the lever, (2) the wheel and axle, (3) the pulley, 






*%IM 



dn 



b fl-rO 



§ 

I? 



<JQ 



moa - 



I 



\ 



* 










dn 



1 



nmoo x 



Uj 



unzoiru 



<fn 



*$ 



i 

kj 

I 

OS 



<*n 



I 



dn 



fi-HO, 



cfn 



V 



Pr-O^ 



V 









(4) the inclined plane, (5) the wedge and (6) the 
screw. The wheel and axle and the pulley are only 

76 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 



advanced forms of the lever, while the wedge and 
the screw are higher forms of the inclined plane, as 
you will presently see. All of these are shown in 
Fig. 32, the different kinds of levers in Fig. 33 and 
the various kinds of pulleys in Fig. 34. 

From the above six simple machines a large num- 
ber of mechanical movements have been evolved, 




AffXZDPULLEY 



COA/B/MED PULLEYS 

FORR/HS/NG 

HEAVYLOA0S 



Fig. 



M0VA3U PULLEY 



Kinds op Pulleys 



with which any kind of a machine for any purpose 
can be built up. 

To Find the Speed of a Shaft, Pulley or Fly- 
wheel. — To find the speed at which an engine runs, 
or a shaft, pulley or flywheel of a machine rotates, 
is a very easy matter if you have a speed indicator 
as shown at A in Fig. 35, to do it with. 

This instrument is simply a worm gear, the spin- 
77 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

die of which has threads cut on it These mesh with 
the teeth of a gear to which an indicator dial is fixed. 
To use the indicator, all you need to do is to set it at 
0, note the time on your watch, and press the pointed 
end of the spindle on the center of the end of the 




# SPEED INDICATOR 



'-^-WHEEL 



SHAFT 




ROBBERBELTED B 

WHEEL /J SURFACE SPEED 

ATTACHMENT 

Fig. 35. — The Speed Indicator and How It Is Used 



revolving shaft. In a minute read the dial, which 
will give you the number of revolutions per minute. 
To find the surface speed, that is, the number of 
lineal feet per minute the periphery, or surface, of 
the wheel is traveling, a surface speed attachment is 
used ; this consists of a rubber-banded wheel that can 
be slipped over the spindle of the indicator, as shown 
at B. 

78 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 

To use it, hold the wheel against the surface of 
the shaft or pulley a minute or so and then divide 
the number of revolutions, as shown on the dial, by 
2 ; now since each revolution of the dial indicates 6 
inches, and twice around equals a foot, the result will 
give you the number of feet the surface of the wheel 
is traveling. 

How to Find the Size of a Pulley.— Very often, 
after you have found the speed of an engine, or a 
motor, you will want to know what size pulley you 
will need on a line of shafting belted to it to turn a 
given number of revolutions per minute. 

This you can easily do by using the f ormula : 

S = or a little plainer, 

r 

S ==. d X R -H r 

where S is the size of the pulley you must have on 
the shaft in diameter in inches, and is what you 
want to find, 

d is the diameter in inches of the pulley on the 
flywheel shaft, which you know, 

R is the R. P. M., namely, the number of revolu- 
tions per minute, of the flywheel which you get 
from the speed indicator, and 

r is the number of E. P. M. you want to make the 
pulley on the shaft which is belted to the engine 
or motor revolve at. 

79 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

Fig. 36 shows a belt driven pulley transmission 
system as described in the formula above, which will 
make it easy to understand. 

How to Figure the Size of Belt Needed.— The 
next thing you will want to know is what sized belt 
you will need to transmit, or carry, a given horse 
power from the engine, or motor shaft, to the pulley 
on the countershaft, or machine. 



FLYWHEEL 




COUNTERSHAFT J? 
PULLEY WHEEL BELT 



PULLEY WHEEL 



Fig. 36. — Transmission op Power by Pulleys and 
Belting 



A belt larger than is needed will be an extra ex- 
pense and result in a loss of power, while a belt that 
is too small will slip, break and behave badly in 
generaL Hence, if you are to transmit power with 
economy, you must have a belt of the right width. 
You can roughly find about the right-sized belt from 
the formula : 

W = H.P. 



where W is the width of the belt traveling at 
4,000 feet per minute (this is the most econom- 
ical belt speed) and is what you want to find, 
80 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 

H.P. is the number of horse power to be trans- 
mitted and is known and 
7 is a constant. 1 

How to Splice a Belt.— The three usual ways to 
join the ends of a belt 2 together are (1) to cement 
or glue them, when it is called an endless belt; (2) 
to lace them with rawhide; and (3) to fasten them 
with metal lacing. 

To Make a Cement Splice. — A splice of this kind 
is shown at A in Fig. 37 and gives the least trouble 



jtc§mm Bar F/iczQf&aT back of belt metal spuce 
Fig. 37. — Kinds op Belt Splices 

when done. However, it is hard to get the tension 
just right Bevel off both ends of the belt with a 
block plane; then make a cement of 2 parts by 
measure of good liquid fish glue and 1 part by mea- 
sure of Russian liquid isinglass; apply it to the 
beveled surfaces of the belt while it is hot, and then 
peg it with shoemaker's pegs \ inch apart. 

To Lace a Belt. — Laces for belts are made of strips 
of rawhide and the width used varies with the size 
of the belt. Butt the ends together and punch two 

1 A constant ia a fixed value that has been determined by 
experiment or calculation. 

3 For belting, lacing, etc., write the Page Belting Co., 152 
Chambers Street, New York City. 

81 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

rows of holes in each end, as shown at B. Begin at 
the center and lace it over to one edge, then back to 
the other edge, and then to the center again. Lace 
it so that the upper side of the lacing is parallel and 
crosses over on the under side. 

Metal Belt Lacing. — This is a steel punching, as 
shown at C. To use it you only need to butt the 
ends together, set it evenly over both ends, and drive 
the sharp points through them. Turn the belt over, 
clinch the points and drive them into the belt. It 
is a quick and cheap way to make a joint. 

A Good Belt Dressing.— A belt dressing is a 
compound used to increase the friction and makes 
the wheel pull the belt without slipping. 

(1) Take 37 per cent of boiled linseed oil and 
mix it with 30 per cent of tallow; (2) mix 6 per 
cent of beeswax with 27 per cent of machine oil, all 
by measure. Heat 1 and 2 separately to 360 degrees 
Fahrenheit and then mix together. 

Gears and Toothed Wheels.— In mechanics the 
word gear is used to mean two different things, name- 
ly, (1) a gear is a gear wheel, or cogwheel, as it is 
commonly called, that is, a wheel with teeth cut on its 
rim, or periphery, which can mesh with another 
toothed wheel or toothed rack, and (2) a gear is 
made up of a whole set of parts of some mechanical 
device, as the steering gear of an automobile. The 
only kind of gears we will talk about here are gear 
wheels. 

82 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 



There are five ordinary kinds of gears, 3 and 
these are (1) spur gears, (2) internal gears, 
(3) miter gears, (4) bevel gears and (5) crown 
gears. 

Spur Gears. — A spur gear is a gear with teeth 
on its periphery. The three usual forms of this kind 
of gear are (1) the spoked gear, (2) the webbed gear 



PINION- 





O RACK 
fi RACK AND PINION 




A-SPOKED B'WEBBED C-PLAIN 



AN INTERNAL GEAR 
Fig. 38. — Kinds op Spur Gears 

and (3) the plain gear, all of which are shown at 

A, B and C in Fig. 38. A rack is a flat strip of 

metal with teeth cut on one side of it, so that a spur 

gear which has the same sized teeth will mesh with 

it, as shown at D. 

Internal Gears. — An internal gear is an inside, or 

8 For gears of all kinds, sprockets, etc., write the Chicago 
Model Works, 166 West Madison Street, Chicago, 111., or 
Luther H. Wightman and Co., Boston, Mass. 

83 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



ring gear, that is, it has teeth cut on the inside of 
its rim, as shown at E, so that a smaller spur gear 
can set in and mesh with it. 






£j j5 C 

MITER GEMS BEVEL CROWN GEAR 
GEARS MESHING WITH 
SPUR GEAR 

Fig. 39. — Gears of Various Kinds 




D 
WORM 

GEM, 



Miter Gears. — Miter gears are gears of the same 
size set at right angles to each other with their teeth 
meshing together at 45 degrees, as shown at A in 
Fig. 39. 




Fig. 40. — Sprocket Wheels and Chain 

Bevel Gears. — These are formed of two gears of 
different sizes set at right angles to each other and 
whose teeth mesh at any angle other than 45 degrees, 
as shown at B. 

84 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 

Crown Gears. — A crown gear, as shown at C, has 
its teeth cut on the edge of its face and, since it will 
mesh with a spur gear having teeth of the same size 
and pitch, the gears will very often serve just as well 
as bevel gears and have the advantage of running 
with spur gears of different diameters. 

Worm Gear. — This is a screw working with a 
spiral gear as shown at D and is used in many ma- 
chines for changing a high speed and small power 
into a slow speed and large power. 




fi/JTCHET 
WHEEL 



A 




P/fWL, 



RATCHET 



RATCHET WHEEL, & /zfiCK 

AND PAWL RATCHET RACK 

AMD PAWL 

Fig. 41. — Ratchets and Pawls 

Sprocket Wheels. — Toothed wheels of this kind are 
used to transmit power by means of chains, as shown 
in Fig. 40, and, as there is no slippage, the drive is 
positive. For this reason they are often used in ma- 
chines where there must be unity of action between 
the driving and driven shafts. 

Ratchet Wheels, Ratchet Racks and Pawls. — A 
ratchet wheel has teeth cut on its periphery at a small 
angle so that it can be made to turn in one direction 

85 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

only and moved ahead a tooth at a time. This is done 
by means of a pawl, as shown at A in Fig. 41. Some- 
times a ratchet rack and pawl are used to obtain an 
intermittent, horizontal motion of the former, as 
shown at B. 

Figuring the Size of Gears.-- (1) When you 
want to know the number of teeth a gear must have 
to revolve at a given speed when it is run by another 
gear the number of whose teeth you know, all you 
have to do is divide the number of teeth of the known 
gear by the rate of speed of the wheel you want to find 
the number of teeth on and the quotient will be the 
answer. 

Thus, if you want to find the number of teeth 
a gear must have so that it will revolve twice as fast 
as a gear having 40 teeth, divide 40 by 2 and 
the quotient, 20, will be the number of teeth 
needed. 

(2) Should you want to know the speed that a 
gear will make with a gear whose number of teeth 
you know, you only need to divide the number of 
teeth on the gear whose speed you want to find into 
the number of teeth on the gear whose rate of speed 
you know. 

Thus, if a gear has 40 teeth and you want to know 
its speed when it meshes with another gear having 80 
teeth which makes 20 revolutions per minute, divide 
40 into 80. The answer, 2, will be the number of 
times it revolves to every complete revolution of the 

86 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 

gear with 80 teeth; or 2 X 20, or 40, will be its num- 
ber of revolutions per minute. 

Friction and What It Does.— There is no such 
thing as a perfectly smooth surface. Even a sheet 
of highly polished glass has minute elevations and 
depressions on it, and, chiefly, because of these, if you 
lay one sheet of glass on another and slip it along 
it takes force to overcome the resistance, or friction, 
as it is called. 

Now, while friction is a useful thing in our daily 
lives, since nails and screws would not hold and we 
could not walk and an automobile could not run 
without it, it is hard to contend with it in machin- 
ery, for it takes a lot of power to overcome it and 
this is wasted energy. The next best thing to 
do is to reduce the friction as much as possible, 
for this means to increase the efficiency of the ma- 
chine. 

How to Reduce Friction.— There are two kinds 
of friction, and these are (1) sliding friction and 
(2) rolling friction. 

Where two surfaces slide on each other, one of 
them should be harder than the other to reduce the 
friction. Hence, steel shafts of machines are made 
to revolve in bronze or babbitt bearings. The friction 
between a rotating shaft and a fixed bearing is clearly 
sliding friction. The following are a couple of anti- 
friction alloys : 4 

4 For bronze and babbitt write the Union Smelting and Re- 
fining Co., Avenue D and 14th Street, New York City. 

87 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 
TABLE 



Name of Alloy 


Copper 


Antimony 


Tin 


Lead 


Babbitt metal 


4 
80 


7 


89 

10 




Bronze bearing 


10 







When a small quantity of phosphorus is added to 
the bronze alloy above, it forms what is called stand- 
ard phosphor bronze bearing metal. 

Rolling friction is very much less than sliding fric- 
tion, and roller bearings? as shown at A in Fig. 




STEEL 
ROLLERS 



SHAFT 
GOES 
HERE 



Fig. 42A. — Roller Bearings 

42, are, therefore, largely used in machinery. Ball 
bearings? see B, offer still less resistance than roller 
bearings, because the surfaces in contact are not 
nearly as great; but there is some sliding friction 

6 For roller bearings write the Timken Boiler Bearing Com- 
pany, 1790 Broadway, New York City. 

6 For ball bearings write the Hess-Bright Company, 1914 
Broadway, New York City, and to the New Departure Mfg. 
Co., Bristol, Conn. 

88 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 

even with ball bearings where the adjacent balls rub 
against each other or the separators which contain 
them. 

The Use of Lubricants.— Wherever there is fric- 
tion you can greatly reduce it by the use of a lu- 
bricant, but it must be a lubricant of the right kind. 7 

There are three factors to be considered in using 
a lubricant and these are (1) the pressure with which 



OUTER RING, 

FIXED TO 

FRfitlE 



STEEL BALL 




FIXED IN WS 
RING 



B 

Fig. 42B.— A Ball Bearing 

the surfaces slide against each other, (2) the speed 
that the surfaces are running at, and (3) how hot 
they get. 

Vegetable, animal and mineral oils, soap, soapstone 
and graphite are used as lubricants, and each is good 
in its proper place. The following lubricants will 
serve as a key, but it must be remembered that there 
are many different grades of mineral oils. 

(1) For watches, clocks and fine machinery, use 

T For mineral lubricating oils write the Vacuum Oil Com- 
pany, Rochester, N. Y., or the Piatt and Washburn Co., 11 
Broadway, New York City. For graphite lubricants write 
the Joseph Dixon Crucible Company, Jersey City, N. J. 

89 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



olive oil that has been filtered, or add 1 ounce of 
kerosene to 2 ounces of sperm oil and filter. 

(2) For machines that work at high speed and 
where the work is light, olive, rape, sperm or mineral 
oils can be used. The latter oil should have a 



BRAKE 
BAND 




y 



BAND FIXED 
/f TOTHISEND 



I 



WEIGHT 
/? S/MPLE PRONYBRPKE 

Fig. 43A. — A Dynamometer to Measure Horse Power 

specific gravity of 30.5 degrees Baume, and a flash 
point of 360 degrees Fahrenheit 

(3) For ordinary machinery whale, neatsfoot, 
lard and heavy vegetable oils, vaseline and mineral 
oils are used. The latter should have a specific grav- 
ity of about 27 degrees Baume, and a flash point of 
400 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit, 

(4) For cylinders of engines and other places 
where there are high temperatures, mineral oil hav- 
ing a specific gravity of 27 degrees Baume and a 
flash test of 550 degrees Fahrenheit should be used. 

90 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 

These can be mixed with linseed or cotton seed oil 
or tallow. 

(5) In slow speed and heavy pressure machines 
grease, soapstone or graphite can be used alone, or 
these can be mixed together. 

(6) For wood use soap or graphite. 



CLAMPSHOE 




7 

SC/tLEP/M MACHINE 

8 

/j good PRONraxma 

Fig. 43B. — Dynamometer to Measure the Horse 
Power op a Machine 

How to Find the H. P. Needed to Drive a Ma- 
chine. — When you have an engine or other source of 
power driving a machine, you can easily find the 
horse power needed to run the latter by means of a 
dynamometer. 

A kind of dynamometer much used is called a 
Prony brake. In its simplest form it consists of a 
leather brake band which is slipped over the pulley 

91 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

of the machine, as shown at A in Fig. 43. One end 
is fixed to a support and a weight is hung on its free 
end, which is just heavy enough to affect the speed 
of the pulley which you can tell by your speed indi- 
cator. 

You can easily rig up a Prony brake and roughly 
find the horse power needed to drive the machine 
by the following formula: 

_ 3.1416 X D X R X W 
' ' ~~ 396,000 

where H.P. is the horse power and is what you 

want to find, 
3.1416 is the diameter of the pulley in inches, 
R is the number of revolutions of the pulley per 

minute, 
W is the weight of the weight on the end of the 

brake band in pounds, and 
396,000 is a constant. 

Thus, if you put the brake band over a pulley 
25 inches in diameter which is making 1056 revolu- 
tions per minute, and you find that a weight of 10 
pounds hung on the band just slows down its speed, 
you can find the horse power by substituting the 
figures for the formula above, thus : 

_ 3.1416 X 25 X 1056 X 10 , = 
' ' ~~ 396,000 

which means that 2 H.P. are needed to turn the 
pulley at that speed. 

92 



HOW MACHINES ARE MADE AND USED 

A better though more complicated form of Prony 
brake is shown at B, in which a pair of brake shoes 
are clamped around the shaft, and these absorb the 
power which turns it. This is the really practical 
type of dynamometer, but for your purposes the sim- 
ple Prony brake will probably be accurate enough. 



CHAPTER VI 

PUTTING WIND AND WATER POWER TO WORK 

The source of all the power we have that is avail- 
able for useful work is the sun and the two chief 
natural powers due to it are (1) wind power and (2) 
water power. 

Wind Power 

What Wind Power Is. — The wind, as we call it, 
is simply a current of air and this is caused by the 
sun heating some parts of it more than other parts. 
To equalize this difference of temperature the cold 
and heavy air flowing to the hot and lighter air sets 
it in motion when it develops power in virtue of its 
weight and speed. 

Although the air is a yielding fluid, it acts just 
about like a solid body if it is moving swiftly enough 
or it is hit with something hard enough. Thus, 
when you fly a kite, the force of the wind drives the 
slanting kite up and out while you hold it in and 
down. But, if the string should break and the kite 
should keep the right slant, it would go on as long 
as the wind lasted. 

94 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 



The Parts of a Windmill. — There are seven chief 
parts to a real ■windmill, 1 of the kind that is used 
in the United States, and these are (1) the tower, 
(2) the turntable, (3) the main sliaft, (4) the wheel, 



fl/J/N 
SHAFT 




'HEEL 



TURN TABLE 



TOWER 



Fig. 44A. — The Parts of a Steel Windmill 

(5) the gears, (6) the tailbone and (7) the vane, or 
rudder, all of which are shown in Fig. 44A. 

The turntable is mounted on top of the tower and 
connects the mill with it; the main shaft is fixed to 

1 For steel windmills, towers and pumps write to Woods and 
Co., 59 Park Place, New York City. 

95 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

the wheel, which has radiating sails, as the blades are 
called. When the mill is used for pumping the 



THE V/JNE & WILBONE 



3 




Fig. 44B.— The Parts or a Windmill 



gears are back geared, that is, they reduce the speed 
of the wheel and so develop more power. A pump 




TO 
PUflPROD 



THE GEARS 



Fig. 44C. — The Parts of a Windmill 



pole is connected to a crank on the small gear and 
to the pump below. 

96 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 

When the mill is used for running machinery, such 
as a feed cutter, sheller or wood saw, a beveled gear 
connects the main shaft with a small vertical shaft 
that runs down through a pipe, where another bevel 
gear changes the vertical rotary motion into a hori- 
zontal rotary motion. Thus not only is the power 
of the mill transmitted to the ground but the bevel 
gears step up the speed. 

Sizes of Windmills for Pumping.— The follow- 
ing table shows the sizes of windmills required for 
wells of different depths: 

TABLE 



Size of Windmill 


Depth of Well 


6 foot wheel 


25 foot 


8 " " 


50 " 


10 " " 


75 " 


12, 14, 16 and 20 foot wheels 


For very deep wells 



Sizes of Windmills for Machinery.— The fol- 
lowing table gives the approximate horse power of 
mills working in winds of different speeds: 



TABLE 





Wind Velocities 


Siae of Wheel 


10 Pmilea 
per hour 


15 miles 
per hour 


20 miles 
per hour 


25 miles 
per hour 


30 miles 
per hour 


35 miles 
per hour 


12 foot wheel 

16 " " 


.2 

.36 


.67 
1.21 


1.6 
2.9 


3.12 
5.5 


5.4 
8.5 


8.5 
15.3 



97 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

The Height of Efficient Winds.— If your wind- 
mill is too low, the house, barn, trees, etc., will cut 
off the force of the wind and this will reduce its 
efficiency. 

To get the best results, have the height of your 
windmill 15 or more feet above all wind obstacles. 
In any case, see to it that the tower is high enough 
so that the lightest wind blowing from any direction 
will have a clean sweep across the mill. 

To Find the Height of Buildings, Trees, etc. — ■ 
To know how high a tower you need to get the best 
results, stand a pole 10 feet high in the sunshine 
and measure the length of the shadow it casts. At 
the same time measure the length of the shadow cast 
by the highest building or tree nearest the place where 
you are going to set up your windmill. 

Now divide the length of the shadow of the tree 
or house by the length of the shadow of the pole, and 
multiply the height of the pole by the quotient; 
or, to make a formula of it so that it will be 
easier, 

where H is the height of the house which you want 

to find, 
L is the length of the shadow of the tree or house, 
1 is the length of the shadow of the pole, and 
h is the height of the pole. 

As an example, suppose that the shadow cast by the 
98 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 

10 foot pole is 8 feet and the shadow of the building 
is 32 feet, then 

32 -f- 8 = 4 and 4 X 10 = 40 feet 

which is the height of the house. 
About Towers for Windmills.— Towers for 

windmills can be made of wood or of steel ; the latter 
are the best, safest and cheapest in the long run. 
They are made with four posts, in three sizes, and 
in heights of from 20 to 80 feet 

The first size is for 6 to 10 foot mills, the second 
for 12 to 14 foot mills and the third for 16 and 20 
foot mills. These towers are fitted with swinging 
pump-pole guides where the mill is to be used for 
pumping, and with shaft guides where it is to be 
used for running machinery. 

Water Power 

What Water Power Is.— Water power is devel- 
oped by the flow or fall of water from a higher to a 
lower level. 

The water is raised from a low level by evapora 
tion, which is caused by the heat of the sun; the 
evaporated water then falls as rain on higher levels. 
Then it either flows or falls to a lower level and thus 
it is that the sun is really the source of water power. 

By its weight, the force of its current and its 
centrifugal force, or a combination of them, it can 
be made to turn a wheel and so develop rotary power. 

Kinds of Water Wheels.— There are several 
99 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

kinds of water wheels, but the chief ones are (1) 
the overshot wheel, (2) the breast wheel, (3) the 
undershot wheel, (4) the turbine wheel and (5) the 
jet wheel. 

The first three types of wheels are old fashioned 
and little used because they are very wasteful of 




3- BREAST WHEEL C~ UNDERSHOT WHEEL , 

Fig. 45. — Kinds op Water Wheels 



the energy of the water and hence they must be large 
for the power they develop. They are shown in 
Fig. 45. 

The Jet Water Wheel.— Where a small amount 
of water at a high pressure can be had, a jet wheel 
is the proper kind to use. This wheel has cups, or 
buckets, set around its rim, and the wheel, which is 
small for the horse power it develops as against the 
ordinary water wheel, is driven at a high speed by 

100 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 

the force of the jet of water thrown on the buckets 
bj a nozzle. 

The Pelton water wheel 2 is the best known of 
this type. The wheel and nozzle can be mounted 
on a timber frame or encased in an iron housing. 
The water is discharged against the buckets by a 




DISCHARGING FROM A 
NEEPLE NOZZLE 




CROSS SECTION 
OF NEEDLE NOZZLE 

FULL LINES SHOWPOS/T/ON OF 
WEEDLE WHEN NOZZLE IS CLOSED 
POTTED LINES SHOW POSITION 
OF NEEDLE WHEN JET DISCHARGES 

Fig. 46 A & B. — The Jet Turbine or Water Wheel 

specially designed needle nozzle, as shown at A and 
B in Fig. 46. This sets below the wheel, as shown 
atC. 

The amount of water is controlled by moving the 

s For data re the size and power of these wheels write to the 
Pelton Water Wheel Co., 90 West Street, New York. 

101 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

needle in and out of the end of the nozzle either by 
hand or by a governor geared to the main shaft. 

The Water Turbine.— Principle of the Turbine. 
— When water flows under pressure through a hose 
pipe and out through a nozzle, it tends to straighten 
out the hose. This is caused by the force of the 




fl PELTON JET 
WATER WHEEL 

Fig. 46C. — The Jet Turbine or Water Wheel 



water rushing round the curved end of the nozzle, 
that is, it whirls around and away from the center 
because of its centrifugal force. 

Now, in the turbine, the centrifugal force is pro- 
duced by the water flowing through the curved fixed 
guides when it strikes the guides, or buckets, of the 
wheel, which are curved the other way, as the dia- 

102 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 

gram A in Fig. 47 clearly shows. This kind of wa- 
ter wheel is the most efficient yet invented and it de- 
velops as high as 90 per cent of the total energy of 
the stream. 

How the Turbine is Made and Works.— A ver- 
tical standard turbine 3 is shown at B and all the 

.WHEEL GU/PES OR 
-BUCKETS 



E/XED 
GU/PES 




WTIET WATER GOES 

WHERE 

ARROWS SHOW COURSE 

OF W/PTER THROUGH TURB/NE 

Fig. 47A. — Diagram op How a Water Turbine Works 

parts thereon are named. The turbine sets on the 
floor of a penstock, or a flume, in an upright position 
and is entirely covered with water as shown at C. 

The water from the penstock or flume is led to the 
turbine, which is set as low as possible so that the 
water flowing through it passes out of and into the 

3 For further information about turbines write to James 
Leffel and Co., Springfield, Ohio. 

103 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



tailrace. In passing through the wheel, the water 
flows through the curved fixed guides when it is 
thrown on the buckets of the wheel in a direction 
that makes for the highest efficiency. 

After the water has left the buckets the used water, 
or tail water, as it is called, flows out of the center 

TOPHALF 

TURBINE SHAFT 
COUPLING 

BOTTOMHALF 

TURBINESHAFT 
TOP STEP CUP 
TOP LIGNUM 
VIT/7E STEP 



TOPNALF 
GPTESHAFT^s 

COUPLING^ 
BOTTOMHPLF\ 
TOPBRACATTl 



GATE PINION '-%=) . J 

BOTTOM * laflcgS5£^g 

BRACKET 



BOTTOM 
PLATE 




RUNNER 



BRIDGE TREE 




* L UNKR > QD TOP STEP HOLDER 
/ r-LINKBOfr 



crown plate 

GATES 
■GATE BOLT 
COLUMN 
80 LT 



~D/SCHARGE 
CYL/N0ER 

BOTTOM L/6/Mt 
VITAE STEP 



Fig. 47B. — A Standard Vertical Water Turbine 

of the wheel, which is hollow, either directly into the 
tailrace or through a concrete or steel draft tube. 
The weight of the tail water in this tube produces a 
suction, which pulls the water from the penstock or 
flume into the wheel and makes it strike the buckets 
with greater force. 

104 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 

A vertical shaft is fixed to the turbine wheel and 
drives the machinery either by being connected direct 
to it, as in electric power plants, or by being geared 
to a driving pulley. Turbines are built in a large 
number of sizes and develop from 1 horse power with 



PULLET 




HE/JP 



T/fIL 

WATER 



Fig. 47C— The Water Turbine and How It Works 



a 3 foot head and a discharge of 252 cubic feet of 
water per minute, to 4000 horse power with a 50 
foot head and a discharge of 51,100 cubic feet of 
water per minute. 

The Hydraulic Ram.— This is a device used for 
raising water automatically to a considerable height 

105 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



by means of a stream of water having a very smalj 
fall. It has no revolving or moving parts except a 
couple of valves, but it develops power in virtue of 
the fact that, whenever the flow of a stream of water 
is suddenly cut off, there is a corresponding increase 
on the pressure of it. 

A hydraulic ram consists of (1) the body, (2) an 
air chamber, (3) a sniff valve, (4) a check, or Met 



AIR CHAMBER. 



DELIVERY PIPE 



VALVE 
VALVE 




SUPPLY PIPE 



(S/VIFF HOLE 
Fig. 48A. — Cross Section op a Hydraulic Ram 



valve and (5) an impetus valve, all of which are 
shown in the cross section at A in Fig. 48. 

The hydraulic ram works like this : the water flows 
down to the ram through a supply, or drive pipe, as 
it is called, and out of the impetus valve at the end. 
When the water gets a good start, the force of it 
suddenly closes the valve and so cuts off the flowing 
water. 

This sudden stoppage sets up a high pressure in 
the lower end of the pipe which forces the check 
valve, set in between the drive pipe and the air cham- 
ber, to rise and open. Some of the water rises in 
the air chamber and some of it is forced up through 

106 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 

the delivery pipe by the ramming blow of the water 
in the drive pipe. 

As soon as the flow of water stops in the drive pipe, 
the impetus valve drops down and opens and the 
water again starts to flow in the drive pipe and out 
of the impetus valve ; and then the cycle of operation 
begins all over again. 

The space in the air chamber acts as a cushion 
for the water. This permits the check valve to open 
the moment the pressure is set up. The sniff valve 
is simply a small hole in the drive pipe, which sniffs 
in air for the air chamber, and it is sucked in when 
the recoil, or hick, resulting from the sudden rise of 
pressure, is set up. In this way water is constantly 
forced up in the delivery pipe. 

A hydraulic ram is a cheap and satisfactory de- 
vice for supplying water wherever a slight fall can 
be had. A small ram, having a capacity of from 
60 to 100 gallons per hour and driving it to a height 
of 60 feet, can be bought for about $12. 4 It take3 
from 2 to 3 gallons per minute to operate the valves 
of this ram, which has a drive pipe of J inch in 
diameter and a delivery pipe ^ inch in diameter. 

Larger hydraulic rams, taking from 2 to 700 gal- 
lons per minute to operate them, can be bought for 
from $50 to $850 each. 3 A Rife ram in action is 
shown at B. 

4 This ram is sold by the L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., Boston, 
Mass. 

* These larger rams are made by the Rife Hydraulic Engine 
Mfg. Co., 90 West Street, New York City. 

107 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

What "Head of Water' ' Means.— Before you 

install a water wheel, turbine or ram, you should first 
find (1) the head of water in feet that you are going 
to use, (2) the quantity of water in cubic feet that 
flows per minute, and from these two factors a simple 
calculation will give you (3) the horse power of the 




INTAKE 
T/tNK 

SUPPLY^ 
PIP£ 



Fig. 48B. — The Hydraulic Ram at Work 



water supply, and then you will know what size water 
wheel or turbine you should use. 

By head of water is meant the distance the water 
actually falls to operate the wheel or ram. ]STow, 
there are two kinds of heads of water, and these are 
(1) the static, or surveyed head, and (2) the net, 
running or effective head. 

The static, or surveyed head as it is called, is sim- 
108 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 



ply the height of water in the penstock or where it 
flows into the flume or pipe measured to the lower 
level of the water wheel, turbine or hydraulic ram, or 
to the center line of the nozzle where a jet wheel is 
used. To measure the static, or surveyed head, use 
a carpenter's level and a yardstick, as shown in Fig. 
49. 

The net, running or effective head is the pressure 
of the water flowing in the penstock, flume or pipe. 



wm£R 

SUPPLY 




Fig. 49.- 



-How to Measure the Head of Water op 
Your Supply 



There are quite a number of factors which cause a 
loss of pressure from the static head, the chief one 
of which is friction. For a rough calculation, 
though, you can use the static head and let it go 
at that. 

You can find the quantity of water flowing in a 
penstock, flume or pipe by catching and measuring 
the volume of water which flows out of them in 1 
minute in cubic feet. 

To Find the Horse Power of a Water Wheel. 
— Finally, from the head and quantity you can easily 

109 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

calculate the gross horse power of the water wheel by 
means of this formula : 

G.H.P. = .00189 X H X Q 

where G.H.P. is the gross horse power and is 

what you want to find, 
.00189 is a constant, 
H is the head in feet and which you have measured, 

and Q is the quantity of water in cubic feet per 

minute and is known. 

Thus, if you have a head of 30 feet and a pipe 
delivering 2,700 cubic feet of water per minute, 
the gross horse power will be 

G.H.P. = .00189 X 30 X 2,700 = 153.29 

Actual Horse Power of the Water Wheel. — 
As a matter of fact, a water wheel is only about 80 
per cent efficient and to find the actual horse power 
of the water wheel, you will have to multiply the 
gross horse power by .80. Then, in the preceding 
example, the actual horse power of the water wheel is 

153.29 X .80, or only 122.63. 

To Find the Amount of Water Delivered by a 
Ram. — You can find the amount of water delivered 
by a hydraulic ram from the following formula: 

HXQX40 

G = 5 

where G is the number of gallons delivered and is 
what you want to know, 
110 



PUTTING WIND AND WATER TO WORK 

H is the head in feet and which you know, 

Q is the quantity of water in gallons (not cubic 

feet) per minute and which you know, 
40 is a constant, and 
D is the height you want the water delivered to. 

Thus, if you have a head of 30 feet and a pipe 
delivering 2,700 gallons per minute and you want 
the ram to deliver this amount of water at a height 
of 84 feet, the amount of water delivered per hour 
will be 

30 X TOO X 40 840,000 
G = = — ' — 10,000 gallons 

84 84 ' * 

per hour. 



CHAPTER VII 

MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK FOB YOU 

Steam is the great prime power and it has done 
more to aid and ahet civilization than all the other 
powers put together. To generate steam a boiler 
must be used, and to make the steam develop power 
an engine is necessary. 

Now while a steam boiler and engine, or power 
plant as it is called, costs more to buy and to run 
than a windmill or a water wheel, a gas, gasoline 
or an oil engine, it is a far more certain source of 
power than any of these and it runs more smoothly 
and starts off with the full load the instant the steam 
is turned on. 

About the Energy of Steam. — When 1 cubic 
inch of water is heated and changed into steam the 
latter will expand until it takes up nearly 1 cubic 
foot of space. 

When water is heated to 212 degrees Fahrenheit 
it boils, and the more heat you apply to the water 
the more steam you will get and the hotter it will be. 

Steam which can be seen is not real steam at all, 
but merely little drops of water that have been con- 
densed by the cold air and carried up by the real 
steam, which is much hotter and quite invisible. 

112 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

Kow the heat of steam is of two kinds and these 
are (1) hinetic heat, that is, heat which makes the 
steam move, and this is what we call sensible heat, 
and (2) potential heat, that is, heat that is stored 
up in the steam, or latent heat, as it is called. 

One of the curious things about energy of any kind 
is that it can he changed from energy of motion to 
energy at rest, and the other way about, with won- 
derful facility and quickness. Hence sensible heat 
can be changed into latent heat and vice versa. In 
an engine it does this in such a way that all the power 
there is in the steam is gotten out of it. 

What Steam Pressure Is.— When water is 
heated to make steam the particles of water, or 
molecules, as they are called, are torn off from it 
and these are forced out in straight lines like minia- 
ture cannon balls. They keep on going until they 
hit other molecules or strike the sides of the vessel 
containing them. 

Thifi continual pounding away of the molecules of 
steam inside the boiler or the cylinder of an engine 
is so swift and hard that it sets up streams of force 
in every direction and this force and the extent of 
it is what is meant by the term steam pressure. 

How Steam is Measured.— In this country steam 
pressure is measured in pounds, and this is done by 
connecting a steam gauge to the boiler near the top 
where the steam is hottest. The pressure of the 
steam acts on a mechanism that makes a needle swing 
over a dial, which is graduated to read in pounds. 

113 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

Its action is just about the same as a butcher y s 
scale when a piece of meat, or other commodity, is 
being weighed. The construction of the steam gauge 
will be explained presently. 

How a Steam Boiler Is Made. — Different from 
steam heating boilers, those for running engines are 
built to develop and withstand high pressures. 

There are two kinds of boilers in general use and 
these are (1) the upright tubular boiler and (2) the 
horizontal tubular boiler. Horizontal tubular boilers 
are of two kinds and these are (1) the plain, or loco- 
motive, type and (2) the return type. 

All of these boilers are the same in principle and 
are made up of three parts, namely, (1) the boiler 
proper, (2) the fire box and (3) the smoke box. Small 
boilers are nearly always of the upright kind and 
the larger boilers are generally of the horizontal 
kind. A boiler of either kind is a cylindrical shell 
formed of steel plates riveted together and having a 
head riveted to each end. 

One large hole, or a number of small ones, are 
bored in each head and a single tube, called a flue, 
but more often a number of small tubes, called fire 
tubes, are fitted into them, as shown in Fig. 50. These 
tubes are made steam tight by expanding the ends of 
them, that is, spreading them out all round. 

The fire box is an extension of and is riveted to 
the boiler shell and in it the grate is placed. The 
smoke box is either riveted to the other end of the 
boiler or else is made in the form of a hood to set 

114 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

on it, while the smoke stack is bolted to the top of 
the smoke box. 

In the locomotive type of boiler the heat and smoke 
from the furnace pass through the fire tubes in one 
direction only, then out of the smoke box and through 




$MOK£ 
BOX 



Fig. 50. — A Horizontal Tubular Boiler 



the stack. In the return tube boiler the smoke box 
sets on the same end as and over the fire box, so that 
the heat and smoke pass through the tubes to the 
front end and thence back again to the smoke box, 
as shown in Fig. 51. 
The Fittings of a Boiler.— Before a boiler can 
115 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

be used to get up steam it must have a number of 
fittings. Chief among these are (1) the water in- 
take pipe, (2) the water pump, (3) the water gauge, 
(4) the steam delivery pipe, (5) the steam gauge 
cocks, (6) the steam gauge, (7) the safety valve and 
(8) the steam whistle. 




FRONT 



Fig. 51. — The Return Tubular Boiler 

(1) The water intake pipe connects the lower part 
of the boiler below the water line with a source of 
water. An ordinary globe valve is fitted to the in- 
take pipe near the boiler and (2) a force pump is 
coupled to this and to the water supply to feed the 
water into the boiler against its back pressure. 

(3) The water gauge is fitted to the shell of the 
boiler at the water line. It is formed of a long, 
upright glass tube set in two wheel valves, both of 
which connect with the boiler, as shown at A in Fig. 
52. Since water seeks its own level, whatever the 
size, shape or position of the connecting vessel may 

116 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

be, the level of the water in the glass gauge will be 
the same as that of the water in the boiler. 

The water gauge is made so that the glass tube can 
be easily taken out and a new one put in without 
leaking. This is done by screwing a nut on each 
angle valve which has an opening in it large enough 




Fig. 52A. — The Water Gauge Complete 



to take a rubber ring or washer. After the glass 
is slipped into place the nut is screwed up. This 
presses on the rubber ring and squeezes it until it 
fits tight against the glass tube as shown in Fig. 52B. 
The best kind of tubes are called Scotch glass and 
these come in various sizes and lengths for different 
pressures. You can cut the tubes to fit by nicking 

117 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

them with a file, or, better, use a regular water gauge 
glass cutter. 1 

(4) The steam delivery pipe is screwed in the top 
of the boiler, if it is an upright one, or in the steam 
dome, if it is of the horizontal type, so that the hot- 

THISENDSCREWS 
WTO BOILER k^ 



RUB3ERVMSHER 
NUT 

GLASS TUBE 




m 



TH/SENDSCREWS 
INTO BOILER 



ssssi 



», VlVi1 , -.1V ,. - . ^ 



Fig. 52B. — Cross Sections of a Water Gauge 



test steam, which has the most energy in it, will be 
delivered to the engine. A globe valve is fitted to 
this pipe near the boiler so that the steam can be 
cut off at this point if needs be. 

(5) Three gauge cocks are fitted into the shell of 

1 These can be bought of Hammacher, Schlemmer and Co., 
Fourth Avenue and 13th Street, New York City. 

118 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

the boiler just above the water line, and these are 
used to test the quality of the steam. Each one is 
fitted with a stuffing box, and they are shown on the 
right-hand side of the boiler in Fig. 50. 

( 6 ) To accurately measure the pressure of steam, a 
Bourdon spring gauge, see A, Fig. 52C, so called after 
its inventor, is used. It is made of a brass tube hav- 
ing a more or less flat cross section, which is bent into 
a ring, nearly, with its flat sides in and out, as shown 
atC. 

One end of the tube is fixed to the frame of the 
gauge and the other end is open and is connected 
to the boiler through a bent pipe called a siphon. 
The other end is closed, and this end, which is free 
to move, is connected by a lever to a toothed segment 
which meshes with a pinion pivoted to the frame. 
A hand is fixed to the end of the spindle and this is 
turned back to its position, when there is no steam 
pressure, by a spiral spring. When in use, the siphon 
is filled with water to keep the steam from directly 
reaching the gauge. 

Now when the pressure of the steam is impressed 
on the flat tube by the siphon of water it tends to 
round it out; this makes the ring straighten out a 
trifle ; in so doing it pulls on the lever, which moves 
the hand over the dial. The construction of the 
original Bourdon gauge is shown at B. 

In attaching a steam gauge to a boiler, be sure that 
the siphon is filled with cold water. If the hand 
oscillates when the gauge is under pressure, close 

119 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 




A 
SIPHON 



^TO BOILER 




NEEDLE 



FIXED EN, 




BRASS TUBE 



t 

THIS END SCREWS JfrrilRF 
IN BOILER 0F WBE 

Fig. 52C. — A Steam Pressure Gauge 

the cock a little, but not enough to reduce the pres- 
sure on the gauge. Always buy a gauge that is 
graduated to double the working pressure of the 
boiler, as this will insure accuracy. Fig. 52C. 

120 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

(7) Every boiler must have a safety valve, so that 
the steam will blow off automatically before the pres- 
sure becomes dangerous. The safety valve for 
stationary engines is usually of the weight and lever 
type, as shown in Fig. 5 2D. 

It consists of a valve in which a conical plug fits 
into a similarly shaped opening; this plug is held in 
its seat by a lever pivoted to the boiler at one end 




intmt/LLLL 



Fig. 52D. — How a Safety Valve Works 

and carrying a sliding weight on its free end. To 
make the valve blow off when a given pressure is 
reached, all you have to do is slide the weight along 
the graduated lever to the notch marked with the 
number of pounds you want. 

A hell whistle is the kind that is blown by steam 
and is so called because the steam striking a cylin- 
drical, open-mouthed tube makes it vibrate like a bell. 

The whistle is formed of a heavy piece of tube 
closed at one end for the bell. This is fixed to a 
cup by means of a standard, and the cup in turn is 
fastened to the stem of a stopcock. Holes are drilled 

121 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

in the top of the stem so that the steam can escape 
in the cup when it strikes against the hollow side of 
it and is forced up on the edge of the hell, which sets 
the hell to vibrating. Then it gives forth a lusty 
sound that everybody has heard. Its construction 
is shown in Fig. 52E. 





Fig. 52 E. — How a Steam Whistle is Made 



Sizes of Steam Boilers.— A boiler should always 
have twice the horse power of the engine it is to run. 
Smaller boilers of J boiler horse power to 1J B.H.P., 
in which gas, gasoline, kerosene, alcohol, wood or 
coal can be burned, are made by the Lipp Electric 
and Machine Co., Paterson, 1ST. J. Larger boilers, 
both upright and horizontal, can be bought of Done- 
gan and Swift, 6 Murray Street, New York City. 

How a Steam Engine is Made.— The steam en- 
gine is a machine for changing the energy of steam 
into mechanical motion. Now, since steam is gen- 

122 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

crated by heat and mechanical motion is power, what 
the steam engine really does is to change the heat 
into useful power. 

But there are large energy losses from the time 
the fuel is burned in the fire box to the time the 
crankshaft of the engine is rotated. At the very 
best, not more than 20 per cent of the available 
energy that is in the fuel is changed into rotary 
power, and more often the efficiency is only 10 per 
cent, or even less. 

Like steam boilers, there are two generic forms 
of steam engines. These are (1) the upright en- 
gine and (2) the horizontal engine. All ordinary en- 
gines, though, are made and work on the same prin- 
ciple, which I shall describe presently. 

The Parts of an Engine. — For the purpose of ex- 
plaining the steam engine, let's take one of the hori- 
zontal type, because its construction can be seen to 
better advantage than that of an upright engine. 

There are sixteen chief parts to a steam engine, 
and these are (1) the steam chest, (2) the slide valve 
and its stem, (3) the slide valve stem guide, (4) the 
eccentric rod, (5) the eccentric, (6) the cylinder, (7) 
the piston, (8) the piston rod, (9) the cross-head, 
(10) the cross-head guide, (11) the connecting rod, 
(12) the crankshaft, (13) the flywheel, (14) the pul- 
ley, (15) the pillow blocks, and (16) the bed. 

The steam chest is a box or chest through which 
the steam from the boiler passes into the cylinder. To 
make the steam flow first into one end of the cylin- 

123 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

der and then into the other end a slide valve is used ; 
this valve is a hollowed out metal block that covers 
alternately the intake ports of the chest which lead 
through ducts into the cylinder, and it also covers 
the exhaust port all of the time. 

The slide valve stem is fixed to the slide valve and 
passes out of the steam chest through a stuffing box, 
that is, a chamber a little larger than the stem and 
in which hemp or other packing is stuffed to prevent 
the steam from leaking out when the stem slides 
forth and back. 

The end of the slide valve stem slides through its 
guide; to the stem is pivoted the eccentric rod 
and the latter, in turn, carries the eccentric on the 
end of it. The eccentric is formed of a metal disk 
and this is mounted out of its center on the crank- 
shaft. The disk has a groove in its rim and a collar 
or a strap is fitted into the groove, and this is con- 
nected to the eccentric rod. 

The cylinder, as its name implies, is simply a 
cylinder with a solid head at the back and a front 
head with a hole in its center, over which is a stuf- 
fing box. The piston slides in the cylinder, and it is 
this element on which the steam acts. A piston rod 
is fixed to the piston and slips through the stuffing 
box on the head. 

The other end of the piston rod is attached to the 
cross-head which is a metal block that slides in the 
croes-head guide. The connecting rod has a pair of 
bearings fitted to each end. One of these is pivoted 

124 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 



to the pin of the cross-head block and the other to the 
pin of the crankshaft. 



4 %* 



FLYWHEEL 




PISTON 



CONNECTING ROD 



ECCENTRIC 



CRANK 
SH/IFT 



^FLYWHfFL 



Fig. 53A. — Top Cross Section View of a Steam 
Engine 

The crankshaft revolves in a pair of bearings set 
in pillow blocks which support the crankshaft. The 
flywheel is keyed on one end and a pulley is keyed on 



FlYWH££l 




PISTON 



CRANK 



Fig. 53B. — Side Cross Section View op a Steam 
Engine 

the other end of it. The cross section drawings of 
the top and side of an engine, as shown at A and B 
in Fig. 53, will make all parts of it clear. 

125 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

How the Engine Works.— In the picture shown 
at C the steam chest is set above and away from the 
cylinder simply so that you can see to better advan- 
tage the ports and ducts that connect the steam chest 
with the cylinder. 

The slide valve, through its eccentric, and the pis- 
ton, through its connecting rod, are coupled to the 

STEAM PIPE 

SLIDE VALVE 

SLIDE VMVERoo 



PORT 



EXHAUST 
PORT 



PISTON 




PORT 
PISTONROP 

CYLINDER 



Fig. 53C. — Diagram Showing How a Steam Engine 
Works 



crankshaft so that they move in opposite directions. 
The result is that, when the piston reaches either 
end of the cylinder, the inlet port at the end nearest 
the piston is open. 

You will observe that the hollow in the slide valve 
is always over the exhaust port, and that it always 
covers the latter and one of the inlet ports at the 
same time. 

Now the way the engine works is like this : When 
126 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

the steam under pressure from the boiler passes into 
the steam chest, the slide valve is in one end of it 
and the piston is in the opposite end of the cylinder. 
Hence the port nearest to the piston is open and the 
steam flows through it into the cylinder and pushes 
the piston over to the other end. 

When it reaches the port on this side it is open and 
the steam rushing into the cylinder forces the piston 
back again, which pushes the steam out of the other 
inlet port and thence, by means of the slide valve, 
out of the exhaust port into the open air. 

Each forward movement of the piston pushes the 
crankshaft half way round and each backward move- 
ment pulls it the other half way round, thus making 
a complete cycle, or one revolution. 

The Latent Heat of Steam.— The above is the 
simple mechanical action of the steam engine, but 
there is another factor which, though it cannot be 
seen, must be considered if the engine is to be an 
efficient one, and that is the latent heat in the steam. 

Not only does the sensible heat of the steam pro- 
duce pressure but the latent heat also; by this is 
meant that after the steam in the cylinder has been 
cut off by the slide valve, its latent heat, that is, the 
energy stored up in it, begins to change into energy 
of motion, and this makes the steam expand and 
keeps on pressing against the piston. 

So to get all the power that is in the steam out of 
it, the length of the stroke of the slide valve is so 
adjusted that it cuts off the steam long before the pis- 

127 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

ton has reached the end of its stroke, and the force 
of the expansion of the steam is used to drive it the 
rest of the way along. 

What the Flywheel Does.— The flywheel accu- 
mulates energy, which not only carries the crank 
past its dead centers, that is, the ends of strokes 
of the piston, but it also makes the engine run 
smoothly. 

p/yprs 




SPRING 



TOBOILEk 




SUPPORT 



PULLEY 
BELTED TO 
: CRANKSHAFT 
I BEVEL GEARS 
^TO STEASf CHEST 



B 



Fig. 54. — A Flyball Governor op a Steam Engine 



How the Governor Acts. — A governor is used to 
make the engine run at a constant speed. It docs 
this by regulating the flow of steam into the steam 
chest. 

The usual form of governor consists of an upright 
spindle which is rotated by gears that are driven 
by a belt from the crankshaft. Two levers are 
pivoted so that their ends rest on top of the spindle, 
and a ball is attached to each of the other ends. A 
second pair of levers are pivoted to the first pair 
and also a collar, which slides on the spindle, and this 

128 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

in turn is attached to the valve of the delivery pipe. 

When the engine runs too fast, the balls fly apart, 
which pulls the collar up and closes the valve. The 
instant the steam is cut off the engine slows down 
and the balls drop, thereby letting more steam into 
the steam chest and then the engine runs faster. A 
governor is shown in cross-section at B in Fig. 54 
and just as it is at A. 

Packing for Stuffing Boxes.— Packing 2 is used 
to prevent leakage around the piston and piston rod 
and the connecting rod. Formerly hemp was largely 
used for packing and the stuffing box was filled with 
it. To reduce friction and wear on the packing and 
rod, prepared packing was invented. This consists 
of flax, asbestos and rubber cemented together and 
lubricated with oil and graphite. It is quick and 
easy to put in and insures against leaks and blowouts. 

How to Figure the Horse Power of a Boiler.— 
Since a boiler does not do mechanical work, the horse 
power of it cannot be calculated in the same way as 
in the case of an engine. It has been found by ex- 
periment that, when 34.5 pounds of water are 
changed into steam from and at a temperature of 212 
degrees Fahrenheit, 1 holier horse power is produced. 
A boiler horse power is the amount of steam power 
needed to run an engine of 1 horse power. 

It has also been found that, to change 34.5 pounds 

'For kinds and prices write to The Crandall Tacking Co., 
136 Liberty Street, New York City, or to The Johiis-Manville 
Co., 41st Street and Madison Avenue, New York City. 

129 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

of water into steam from and at 212 degrees, the 
boiler must have 10 square feet of heating surface. 
By heating surface is meant all of the boiler that the 
fire actually strikes plus the total area of all the fire 
tubes plus two-thirds the area of the smoke box. 

Thus the heating surface required in a boiler to 
make enough steam to run an engine, the horse power 
of which you know, is 

H.S. = H.P. X 10 

where H.S. is the heating surface which you want 

to find, 
H.P. is the horse power of the engine which you 

know and 
10 is the number of square feet of heating surface 

needed to generate 1 boiler horse power. 

As an example, suppose you want to buy a boiler 
for an engine of 2 horse power. Then 

H.S. = 2 X 10, or 20 square feet of heating sur- 
face is needed to generate enough steam to run your 
engine at full load. 

How to Figure the H.P. of Your Engine.— 
You can find, roughly, the horse power of a single 
cylinder steam engine by using this formula : 

HP = PXLXAXR 
33,000 

where H.P. is the horse power which you want to 
find, 

130 



MAKING THE STEAM ENGINE WORK 

P is the pressure of the steam on the piston and 

this you get from the steam gauge of the boiler, 
L is the length of the piston stroke in feet, 
A is the area of the piston head in square inches 

and is found by multiplying the radius of the 

piston squared by 3.14, 
R is the number of revolutions of the crankshaft 

which you. can find by a speed indicator, and 
33,000 is the number of foot pounds which are 

equal to 1 horse power. 

Suppose, now, you want to find the horse power of 
an engine whose cylinder is 4 inches in diameter; 
the stroke of the piston is 8 inches ; the pressure on 
the piston is 40 pounds to the square inch and the 
crankshaft makes 300 revolutions per minute. 

The area of the cylinder is then 3.14 X R 2 or 
3.14 X 2 2 = 3.14 X 4 = 12.56 square inches; the 
length of the stroke in feet is T \ foot or § foot or .66 
foot. 

Substituting these known values in the formula, 
you have 

40 X .66 X 12.56 X 300 
33,000 
99,480 
° r 3^000 = 3 L ° rSe P ° Wer - 



CHAPTEK VIII 

USING HOT AIR, GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL 
ENGINES 

Hot air, gas, gasoline and oil engines furnish 
sources of power that have many advantages for 
home use over windmills, water wheels and steam en- 
gines and, as each of the first named has its own 
peculiar qualities, these will he cited as we go along. 

The Hot Air Engine. — While the hot air engine x 
is the most efficient of all heat engines, it is only 
used for pumping water, because of its small power 
compared to its size. 

The chief advantage of the hot air engine lies in 
its absolute safety. Any boy or girl who can build 
a fire or light a gas jet or a kerosene burner can run 
the engine as well as a grown person. And, further, 
a little fuel is all that is needed to have a supply 
of water all the time. 

How the Hot Air Engine Works.— The chief 
parts of a hot air engine are (1) the displacement, 
or expansion, cylinder, (2) the loose fitting transfer 
piston, (3) the piston rod and connecting rod for it, 

1 Hot air engines are sold by the Eider-Ericsson Co., 20 
Murray Street, New York City. 

132 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 







ASHPIT 



.SUPPORT 



Fig. 55. — Cross Section op a Hot Air Engine 



(4) the power cylinder, (5) the power piston, (6) 
the power piston rod and connecting rod, (7) the 
crankshaft, with pulley and flywheel, (8) the stand- 

133 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

ards, on which it is mounted, and (9) the fire box, all 
of which are shown in the cross section view in 
Fig. 55. 

Now when a fire is built in the fire box it heats 
the bottom of the expansion cylinder and, on giving 
the flywheel a turn, the loose fitting transfer piston 
in it moves down. This forces the hot air in the 
bottom to go up and around it and into the top of 
the cylinder. On reaching the upper part the air is 
cooled by a water jacket around the cylinder in which 
water is flowing. 

When the air is thus cooled it contracts, and, as 
the expansion and power cylinders are connected, 
the air contracts in the latter as well as in the former. 
The power piston is pushed down by the force of 
the air outside upon it, or the atmospheric pressure 
as it is called. 

Since the transfer piston and the power piston are 
set at a straight angle, that is, an angle of 180 de- 
grees, when the power piston is moving toward the 
bottom the transfer piston moves toward the top. 
This forces the cooled air back to the bottom of the 
expansion cylinder, where the fire heats it once more. 
When it is heated, the air expands, pushing the power 
piston up, and the cycle starts all over again. 

Just bear in mind that the power is developed 
only in the power cylinder by the hot air expanding 
against the power piston first and, on cooling, by 
the atmospheric pressure outside of it. 

How to Use a Hot Air Engine.— When burning 
134 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 

coal, a good draft is needed. A 5-inch stove pipe 
should be used for the smaller engines, and a 6-ineh 
pipe for the large engines, and a damper must be put 
in the pipe in either case. 

Chestnut size hard coal is the best fuel. This 
should be fed into the fire box in small quantities 
often in order to get an even heat and a steady speed. 
Kerosene and gasoline burners can be bought of the 
makers of hot air engines for burning these fuels. 

The Gas Engine.— A gas engine is better than a 
steam engine and boiler in that its first cost is 
cheaper, it is smaller for the amount of power it 
gives, it does not need to be looked after so closely, 
and it is more economical to run. 

Different from a steam engine, though, a gas en- 
gine must be run at its full working speed before 
it can be used to transmit its power to machinery. 
Otherwise it will stall; this is because it is the sud- 
den force of the explosion of the gas that drives the 
piston to the end of the cylinder, while the heat 
in the steam makes it expand and develop power 
from the moment it enters the cylinders. Hence, a 
gas engine must be started up before the load is 
thrown on and this can be done either by shifting a 
belt or by using a clutch of some kind. 

The Parts of a Gas Engine.— A gas engine is 
formed of the following principal parts, namely: (1) 
the cylinder, (2) the piston and its connecting rod, 
(3) the air and gas inlet valve, (4) the exhaust valve, 
(5) the camshaft and cam, (6) the timing gears, (7) 

135 



I 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



the crankshaft, on which are the pulley and flywheel, 
and (8) the igniter. 

In the type of gas engine in general use the 
cylinder is open at one end, as shown in Fig. 56. 
The piston is connected direct to the crankshaft by 

SPARK 



EXHAUSJ W^ 
V/JLYE 



te PLUG 

/JVLET 
MLVE 



P/STOJV 




CONNECT 

//ve 

ROD 
CAM 



CR/fNKSH/fET 
TIMING 

GE/PR5 

Fig. 56. — Cross Section of a Gas Engine 



a connecting rod, and this does away with the piston 
rod, cross-head and cross-head guide. 

The inlet valve is set in the closed end of the cylin- 
der and works against a spiral spring. This lets the 
fuel mixture, as the gas and air which form the ex- 

136 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 

plosive charge is called, into the cylinder. A cam 
opens it at the right instant to admit the fuel mix- 
ture. 

The exhaust valve is a valve in the head of the 
cylinder and this is opened at the right time to let 
out the burnt gases by the cam on the camshaft, which 
is geared to the crankshaft with a pair of bevel gears, 



VENTHOLE 



CYLINDER 
OFENG/NE 




IRON TUBE 



HOT TUBE 



BUNSEN 



TOGAS SUPPLY 



BURNER 

Fig. 57. — Hot Tube Igniter for a Gas Engine 



or timing gears, as they are called. In automobile 
engines both the inlet and the exhaust valves are 
opened by cams on the camshaft. 

The igniter which fires the fuel charge in the 
cylinder is set in the head of the engine. There 
are two kinds of igniters in general use and these are 
(1) the hot tube igniter and (2) the electric spark 
system. 

The Hot Tube Igniter. — This is a very simple 
137 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

kind and is still used on stationary gas engines. 
It is formed of a thin steel tube held in the middle 
of an iron shell by a cap on each end. The shell 
has a hole in it, and the steel tube is kept red-hot 
by a gas flame, as shown in Eig. 57. The igniter 

&/!TT£RY 



SWITCH 




TIMER 



SPARK 
COIL 



SPARK 
PLUG 



Fig. 58. — A Battery Ignition System 



is screwed to the cylinder head over a hole in the 
latter, so that the fuel charge can be fired by it. 

Electric Spark Systems. — There are two kinds of 
electric spark ignition systems, and these are (1) the 
battery system and (2) the magneto system. 

The battery system consists of (a) a dry or storage 
battery, (b) a spark coil, (c) a timer and (d) a spark 
plug. These are connected up as shown in Fig. 58. 
The timer is a cam that is geared to the crankshaft 

138 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 

and, when it rotates and makes contact with a spring, 
it closes the battery and spark coil circuit. A spark 
then takes place in the business end of the spark 
plug, which is screwed in the head of the cylinder. 

The magneto system includes (a) a high tension 
magneto, (b) a tinier, and (c) a spark plug. The 
magneto is a small dynamo electric machine 2 and 




BRUSH 
HOLDCR 



ARMATURE 



INTERRUPTS* 



— GRgwj) I L, GROUND ^ 

Fig. 59. — A Magneto Ignition System 



induction coil combined, generating a high tension 
current. It is driven by a shaft geared to the crank- 
shaft of the engine, as is also the timer. A diagram 
of the system is shown in Fig. 59. 

How a Gas Engine Works. — A gas engine 3 
works very differently from a steam engine, since in 
the first there is only one power stroke to every four 

a The theory of the dynamo is explained in Chapter XI. 
8 Gas, gasoline and oil engines all work on the same general 
principle. 

139 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

strokes of the piston, whereas in the second every 
stroke is a power stroke. 

The diagrams shown in Fig. 60 represent a single 
cylinder gas engine, and each diagram shows a dif- 
ferent stroke of the piston, also whether the valves 
are open or closed and what goes on in the cylinder. 







'CR/JWSH/iFT o TH£ 
tH£ SUCTION STROKE COMPRESSION 
STROKE 



THE 
POWER 
STROKE 



THE EXHAUST STROKE 



Fig. 60. — How a Gas Engine Works 



To get a power stroke for every half turn, of the 
crankshaft, the engine must have four cylinders 
whose pistons are connected with a single crankshaft. 
The valves are so timed that while one piston is 
making a suction stroke, the next is making a com- 
pression stroke, the following one a power stroke 
and the last an exhaust stroke. This gives the equiva- 

140 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 

lent of a power stroke for every stroke of a single 
cylinder steam engine. 

When a hot tube is used for the igniter the fuel 
charge is not fired until the piston reaches the end 
of its compression stroke, because the tube is not hot 
enough in itself to ignite the charge. But when 
any kind of a gas is compressed, heat is produced and 
this, together with the heat of the hot tube, increases 
the temperature to a point where it will explode the 
fuel charge. No mechanism is needed to make it ex- 
plode at the right instant. 

But, where an electric spark ignition system is 
used, a timer is necessary in order to make the spark 
at the end of the compression stroke. 

How a Gasoline Engine Works.— While a gas 
engine burns ordinary city gas and a gasoline engine 
burns gasoline, the principle on which they work is 
the same. 

The only difference between them lies in the fact 
that the former has an air and gas inlet valve or mix- 
ing valve j while the latter has a device called a car- 
buretor, which breaks up the gasoline in a spray and 
mixes it with air when it is sucked into the cylinder. 

The Parts and Action of the Carburetor.— 
A carburetor is made up of two chief parts and these 
are (1) the gasoline supply control and (2) the spray 
making apparatus. The gasoline supply is controlled, 
as you will see at A in Fig. 61, by a needle valve 
fitted to a float and as the gasoline fills the chamber 

141 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



the float rises and the needle valve cuts off the supply 
from the tank. 

The spray making apparatus consists of a Dent pipe 
connected with the float chamber and having a nozzle 
in its free end which is turned up. Around the noz- 
zle is placed a larger pipe as shown at B; one end 



GASOLINE T/7NK\ 




TOtNTfiKE 
MANIFOLD OF 
ENGINE 

SPPING 
Y/7LYE 

/HJXILL/JRY 

J/fi YMYE^ -£ 



CHECK 
Y/?LY~ 



mOJSOL/NE 
SUPPLY VM YE 



NEEDLE Y/PLYE 

PRW/NGP/N 



WIN MR INLET DR,P Tua£ 

Fig. 61. — How a Carburetor Works 



DRAIN YALVE 



is open to the air and the other end connects with 
a mixing chamber. Now when air is drawn into 
this pipe it breaks up the gasoline flowing through 
the nozzle and this forms the explosive mixture 
which is drawn into the cylinder of the en- 
gine. 

How an Oil Engine Works.— Oil engines are 
built on the same general lines as gasoline engines, 
hence they work on the same principle, but by using 

142 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 

kerosene or crude oil for fuel these are safer and 
more economical to run. 

The fuel oil is kept in a supply tank, which should 
be set below the level of the ground and outside of 
the building where the engine is placed, as shown in 
Fig. 62. The oil is pumped from the supply tank 
into a fuel reservoir fixed to the cylinder of the en- 

C0MBU3TI0N /NJECTJOH ^ ^ n 
CHAMBER PUMP LUBP/C/TTOP 

/7/P SUCTION 
-P/PE 



tf/HN BEARING 




Fig. 62. — Oil Engine with Tank Underground 



gine, and the oil in it is kept at a constant level by 
an overflow pipe which carries the excess oil back to 
the supply tank. 

From the fuel reservoir the oil flows into the 
mixing valve which breaks up the kerosene, or crude 
oil into a spray. The mixing valve is formed of a 
needle valve which sets in a nozzle; the small end 
of the nozzle is screwed into the head of the cylinder 
and the other and large end is connected to the fuel 

143 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

reservoir. When the engine is running a small quan- 
tity of the oil is drawn into the cylinder with the air 
on the suction stroke of the piston, while a needle 
valve regulates the amount of oil that is taken into 
the cylinder for each charge just as in an ordinary 
carburetor. 

In the end of the air inlet pipe of the mixing 
valve is a little damper called a butterfly valve. By 
opening it more or less the right amount of air for 
the amount of oil used to make the proper fuel mix- 
ture for varying loads can be had. To do this a 
governor, called a throttling governor, is connected 
with the butterfly valve. This holds the speed of 
the engine steady. 

The inlet pipe of the mixing valve is also some- 
times fitted with a nozzle attached to a supply of wa- 
ter, which is thrown in a fine spray and drawn in 
with the fuel mixture. The amount of water that is 
taken into the cylinder is regulated by a needle valve. 

The instant the water gets into the cylinder it is 
converted by the heat into steam. This acts as a 
cushion to break the violent force of the explosion 
and makes the operation of the engine more economi- 
cal without reducing the power. The water must 
not be turned on until the engine has been running 
for some time, and it must be shut off a little while 
before the engine is stopped so that the cylinder will 
be left dry. 

To start an oil engine, especially where crude oil 
is used, it is a good scheme to fill the reservoir with 

144 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 

gasoline first. By the time this is used up the en- 
gine will be warm and work better. 

Sizes and Power of Engines.— The Hot Air En- 
gine. — The sizes of hot air engines are not based 
on the horse power which they develop, but on the 
vertical heights to which they can pump water. Thus 
an engine with a cylinder 5 inches in diameter will 
pump water to a height of 50 feet; 6 inches to 75 
feet; 8 inches to 125 feet; and 10 inches to 160 
feet. For data of hot air engines write to the Rider- 
Ericsson Engine Co., 20 Murray Street, New York 
City. 

The Gas Engine. — Gas engines are built in all 
sizes, from 1 horse power on up to any horse power 
you want. Wherever there is a supply of natural 
or artificial gas, you have a source of power that is 
at once cheap and requires a minimum of atten- 
tion. Tor data, floor space required, speed, weight 
and other data write to the Otto Gas Engine Works, 
114 Liberty Street, New York City. 

The Gasoline Engine. — A gasoline engine is not 
as economical to run as a gas engine but, where gas 
is not available, it is the next best kind of a prime 
mover. There are many makes of gasoline engines 
on the market, but to get a line on them write to the 
Otto Gas Engine Works and the Rider-Ericsson En- 
gine Co., as above; Fairbanks, Morse and Co., 30 
Church Street, New York City, and Sears, Roebuck 
& Co., Chicago. 

145 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

The Oil Engine. — The smallest oil engine that I 
know of develops 2J horse power, and from this little 
unit the sizes go on up to those large enough to run 
a sugar refinery or to supply power for a submarine. 

An oil engine uses about half as much kerosene as 
the amount of gasoline used by a gasoline engine and, 
as kerosene costs about half as much as gasoline, 
it is obvious that it costs about a fourth as much to 
run it. Crude oils are even cheaper than kerosene, 
but it is better to run small engines on kerosene than 
on the heavier oils. 4 

For small oil engines write to Sears, Roebuck & 
Co., Chicago, 111., and for the larger sizes get in 
touch with Fairbanks, Morse and Co. 

How to Figure the Horse Power of a Gas, 
Gasoline or Oil Engine.— You can find about the 
number of horse power a four stroke cycle engine will 
give with this rule : 

D 2 X N 



H.P. 



2.5 



where H.P. is the horse power you want to know, 
D 2 is the bore or diameter of the cylinder squared, 
N is the number of cylinders, and 
2.5 is the coefficient and has been found accurate 
for a piston speed of 1,000 feet per minute. 

•Before buying any kind of an internal combustion engine 
write to the National Board of Fire Underwriters, 76 William 
St., New York City, for a booklet called Begulations for the 
Installation and Use of Internal Combustion Engine which will 
be sent you free of charge. 

146 



USING OTHER HEAT ENGINES 

Now suppose you have a 1 cylinder engine whose 
bore is 2 J inches, then: 

2.Y5 2 X 1 



H.P. = 
or H.P. = 



2.5 

7.5 X I 



2.5 
or H.P. -= 3. 

You will find the internal combustion engine more 
fully treated in my book, Gas, Gasoline and Oil En- 
gines, published by D. Appleton and Co., New York. 



CHAPTER IX 
HOW TO HITCH UP POWER 

Wherever you live you can easily have some kind 
of power and, having it, you can with a little schem- 
ing harness it up and make it pump water, wash 
clothes, saw wood and do a hundred and one other 
chores in and around the house and farm. 

How to Use Wind Power. —While wind power 
is intermittent and variable, a good windmill prop- 
erly fitted with transmission gears can be erected on 
top of your barn, either by using a four post mast 
or a steel tower, and running the vertical shaft down 
inside of it. 

The lower end of the vertical shaft is geared to a 
horizontal shaft and this in turn has a pulley keyed 
to it. The drive is then braced securely to hold it in 
place, when it can be belted to whatever machine you 
want it to run. 

When I say any machine, I mean a machine which 
does not require a constant speed, as, for instance, 
a feed cutter, corn sheller, circular saw for sawing 
wood, and the like. 

About Changing Wind Power Into Electricity. — 
Many attempts have been made to generate elec- 

148 



HOW TO HITCH UP POWER 

tricity by using a windmill as a prime mover, but as 
the speed of the latter is so variable and the power 
is so uncertain, it is not to be recommended, espe- 
cially since the oil engine is so cheap to install and to 
run. 

How to Use Water Power.— If there is a stream 
of water on your place, you have a source of power 
that you can develop with very little trouble and at 
small initial expense. It will do all kinds of useful 
work without cost and with practically no attention 
after the plant is in operation. 

All ordinary machinery can be belted directly to 
the pulley on the shaft of a water wheel, or you 
may have to use a pair of gears to speed up the drive 
pulley. If you should want, however, to transmit 
the power from the water to some distant point there 
are two ways open for you to do it and these are (1) 
by a rope drive and (2) by electric transmission. 

To transmit power by a rope drive means simply 
that you use an endless hemp rope instead of a belt 
to connect the grooved pulley on the shaft of the 
water wheel to a similar grooved pulley at the distant 
place where you want to run the machinery. Where 
power is to be transmitted over short distances and 
light and heat are not needed at the other end, a 
rope drive is both cheap to install and to keep up. 

The distance to which a rope drive will work 
satisfactorily, ranges anywhere from 10 to 175 feet, 
while with carrying pulleys the power can be trans- 
mitted to almost any distance. 

149 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

Should you intend to install a rope transmission 
of any kind, write to the American Manufacturing 
Company, Noble and West Streets, Brooklyn, New 
York, for a copy of their Blue Booh of Rope Trans- 
mission which they will send you gratis. In it you 
will find out everything that is known about trans- 
mission ropes and rope driving. 

Where power is to be transmitted over consider- 
able distances, the only feasible scheme is to belt or 
gear a dynamo to the water wheel and convert the 
energy of the head of water into current electricity. 
If the water wheel can be fitted with a governor to 
regulate the flow of water, the current can be used for 
lighting, as it comes direct from the dynamo. 

But for a lighting system it is always good practice 
to hook up a storage battery to the dynamo and then 
oull the current from the storage battery. This ar- 
rangement not only gives a uniform current but, 
when the battery is charged, you can shut down the 
water wheel and dynamo, lock up the power house 
and leave it to the battery to deliver the current 
without fear of something going wrong. 

How to Use Steam Power.— Steam is the ideal 
power for running all kinds of machinery in gen- 
eral and dynamos in particular, because it is steady, 
continuous and easy to regulate. Where gas, gaso- 
line or oil can be used to fire the boiler, it takes but 
little work to keep a steam power plant going; but 
it isn't safe to let a boiler and a steam engine run 
alone for any length of time. 

150 



HOW TO HITCH UP POWER 

A dynamo can be belted to a steam engine and the 
flywheel is often used for the pulley so that the 
dynamo can be run at a high enough speed without 
using countershafting. If the engine is a high speed 
one, the armature of the dynamo, that is, the re- 
volving element, can be connected direct to the crank- 
shaft of the engine. 1 

A storage battery need not be used to take the 
current from the dynamo and then deliver it to the 
lighting and heating appliances, but the current can 
be used for lighting, and all other purposes you want 
to put it to, as it is generated by the dynamo, that 
is, where the engine is used only for running the 
dynamo; where other machinery is driven by the 
engine and there are variations in the load, or if 
you want a current when the engine is not running, 
or you want more current than the dynamo alone will 
give at certain hours of the day or night then, of 
course, you will have to install a storage battery. 

Using Hot Air Power. — A hot air engine serves 
admirably for pumping water, running corn shellers 
and any kind of small machinery where a safe power 
is needed for short periods of time. It is not a good 
power, though, for driving a dynamo, even when a 
storage battery is used in connection with it 

How to Use Oil and Gasoline Power.— An en- 
gine burning kerosene is the cheapest and, next to 
the hot air engine, the safest kind of a portable prime 

*See Chapter XI. 

151 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

mover, not only in its first cost but in operation and 
in upkeep. 

You can't beat it as a handy power producer on 
the farm, for it will do nearly everything but herd 
sheep and milk cows. But, if you want to generate 
electric power for lighting, you must use a storage 
battery between the dynamo and the lighting cir- 
cuits. 

A gasoline engine runs more smoothly than an oil 
engine but, unless you have a four cylinder engine, 
when you run the dynamo with it, if you do not run 
any other machinery at the same time you can get 
along without a storage battery. 

In these days when so many second-hand cars have 
been relegated to the scrap heap, you can often pick 
up a car with a 20 or 30 horse power engine for as 
many or a fewer number of dollars. 

Having it, you can leave the engine on the frame 
and mount the latter on a foundation of timbers, or 
you can loosen the bolts and take the engine off of 
the frame and set it on timbers or on a concrete 
foundation. 

How to Use Your Automobile as a Power 
Plant. — In these days when every well-to-do farmer 
owns a motor car, it is easy to make it serve as a 
power plant for driving light machinery, or even a 
dynamo, in a pinch. 

The drive is of the friction type, that is, the rear 
wheels of a motor car set on a pair of rollers and, 
when the engine is running, the friction between the 

152 



HOW TO HITCH UP POWER 

rubber tires and the surface of the rollers causes the 
latter to revolve. 

How to Make a Friction Drive. — To make the 
drive, cut off four pieces of 2 x 4 scantling and have 
each one 34 inches long. Bore a 1-inch hole through 
the thick side of two of the pieces 2 inches from each 




/} WOOD SPLIT PUUBY 



END VIEW OF AUTO DRIVE 

Fig. 63. — Details op an Auto Power Plant 



end. Now get four pillow blocks and bolt one to 
each end of two of the sticks so that the center of 
the hole in it is 6 inches from the end, as shown at 
A in Fig. 63. 

The pillow blocks are bearings made in two parts 
of cast iron. These are bolted together, as shown 
at B. A hole is drilled in the top part of the bear- 
ing so that it can be oiled. The hole for the shaft 
is 1 inch in diameter and the height from the center 

153 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

of it to the base is 1^ inches. You can buy them 
for about 75 cents apiece. 2 

After boring the boles for the bolts, round tbem 
out on one side so that the heads of the bolts will set 
in flush with the surface. This done, lay one of the 
sticks with the pillow block on it on one of the other 
sticks, bore a J-inch hole through both of them 11 
inches from each end, and then bolt the sticks to- 
gether. These form the ends of the drive. 

Now get two pieces of iron rod 1 inch in diameter 
and 6 feet 2 inches long. Have a thread cut on each 
end of each one 6 inches down; screw a nut on each 
end and then slip on a washer. Put the ends of 
the rods through the holes in the ends in the sticks, 
slip a washer over each one and screw a nut on the 
end of each rod. This completes the frame. 

The next thing is the rollers. You will either have 
to get these turned or else buy split pulleys* that is, 
pulleys which are cut in two so that they can be 
bolted to a shaft, as shown at C. Get two lengths 
of steel shaft 1 inch in diameter. Have one of them 
6 feet long and the other 6 feet 6 inches long. Then 
have a wood turner turn four hardwood rollers each 
of which is 6 inches in diameter and 12 inches long. 

Next, bore a 1-inch hole down through the middle 

8 Luther H. Wightman, Milk Street, Boston, Mass., makes 
them. 

•For further information and prices re wood split pulleys 
write the Dodge Sales and Engineering Co., 21 Murray Street, 
New York City. 

154 



HOW TO HITCH UP POWER 

of each roller. This must be done accurately, or 
else the roller will not run true. Drive these on 
the shafts far enough so that the ends of the latter 
can be set in the bearings of the pillow blocks, as 
shown at A, and then screw on the covers. On the 
projecting end of the long shaft, hey or screw on a 
pulley to drive the machinery. 

RE/PR WHEELS ^•'"n 
OE '/WTOMOB/LEi V"\ \ 




DRIVE 
PULLEY 



Fig. 64. — A Motor Car Power Plant 



Instead of having rollers turned, a better scheme 
is to buy four wood split pulleys 6 inches in diameter 
and having 8, 10 or 12 inch faces. These pulleys 
cost, respectively, about $3, $3.50 and $4 apiece. 
The construction of the pulleys is shown at C. 

Finally, a runway must be made so that you can 
back the car onto the rollers and this is easily done 
by nailing a few boards to a couple of angle blocks. 

155 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

Then your friction drive is ready to rim as shown in 
Fig. 64. 

To find the horse power of the engine, see Chap- 
ter VI; and to find the size and the speed of the 
drive pulley needed to run a machine at a given speed, 
seo Chapter IV. 



CHAPTER X 
INSTALLING A HOME ICE-MAKING MACHINE 

While it is easy to produce intense heat, it is quite 
another matter to make intense cold, especially on 
a small scale. Hence, ice is cut in the winter, stored 
in ice houses until summer and, when the ther- 
mometer is in the neighborhood of 100+ in the shade, 
it is delivered by the ice man at fabulous prices to 
the sweltering householder. 

What Cold Is. — When we say a thing is cold we 
mean that it has a temperature which is lower than 
that of the normal, or standard, temperature, which 
is generally taken to be the temperature of the human 
body, namely, 98f degrees Fahrenheit. 

The standard of low temperature is the freezing 
point of water. This, as you found in Chapter IV, 
is 32 degrees on the Fahrenheit thermometer and 
degree on the centigrade thermometer. But the 
freezing point of a substance does not by any means 
show that there is no more heat in it. The tem- 
perature at which a body really loses all of its heat 
is called the absolute zero and this is 273 degrees 
colder than the freezing, or point, on the centigrade 
scale. 

157 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

How Cold is Produced. —There is only one way 
by which cold can be produced and this is by evapora- 
tion; to do this a liquid must be used or if a gas is 
used it must be condensed into a liquid first, and in 
all ice-making machines both of these principles are 
combined and used. 

Cooling by Evaporation, — In physics evaporation 
means that a vapor is formed on and given off by the 
exposed surface of water, or any other liquid, which 
has a temperature below the boiling point. In coun- 
tries where the heat is intense, drinking water is kept 
cool by putting it in unglazed earthen jars, which 
are porous, and set in the shade where the wind will 
blow on them. 

As the water seeps through the pores of the jar 
and reaches the surface, the wind evaporates it and 
this rapid evaporation keeps the water cool. An ex- 
periment to illustrate cooling by evaporation is to 
put a few drops of alcohol, or, better, ether, in the 
open palm of your hand, when it will evaporate very 
fast, and you will feel it get quite cold. 

What Condensation Is. — In physics condensation 
means that a gas or vapor is changed to a liquid. 
Now, there are two ways a gas or vapor can be 
liquefied and these are (1) by cooling it and (2) by 
compressing it, and both of these processes are used 
in ice-making machines. 

For experimental purposes and making ice cream, 
a freezing mixture can be made by mixing 1 part of 
salt with 3 parts of cracked ice, and this will produce 

158 



A HOME ICE-MAKING MACHINE 

a temperature lower than that of the freezing point 
of water. Again, if 3 parts of calcium chloride, 
which is a salt, are mixed with 2 parts of cracked 
ice, a still lower temperature can he had and one that 
is cold enough to easily freeze mercury. 1 

To compress a gas, or a vapor, until it liquefies, all 
that is needed is to draw it into the cylinder of a 
pump and push a piston against it. In ice-making 
machines the gas is cooled by cold water flowing in 
a coil of pipe, around which the gas circulates. It 
is then liquefied by compression in a pump. 

About Ice-Maldng Machines.— Ice-making ma- 
chines in general use today are worked with two 
kinds of chemicals for the refrigerants and these are 
(1) ammonia gas and (2) sulphur dioxide gas. 

Ammonia Refrigerating Machines. — Machines for 
making ice on a large scale use ammonia, or am- 
monia gas, as it is called. This must not be con- 
founded with the so-called liquid ammonia sold in 
stores, which is merely water that has absorbed a 
lot of ammonia gas and is really ammonia water. 

Ammonia is a colorless, transparent gas. It is 
easily made into the liquid form when it is chilled 
and pressure is applied to it. When the pressure is 
removed from the liquefied ammonia it soon passes 
back to its gaseous state by evaporation. Jn so 
doing it absorbs heat and hence cools the surround- 
ing air or water. These properties of it are taken 
advantage of in the artificial manufacture of ice. A 

1 Mercury freezes at — 39.5° Fahrenheit. 
159 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



cross section of an ammonia ice making machine is 
shown in Fig. 65. 

Sulphur Dioxide Refrigerating Machines. — The 
only ice machine that is small, safe and economical 

/OEM/WING 



3MN£T/?M 



TANKS GO HERE 




WATER 
OUTLET 



Fig. 65.- 



COLDRUNMNG 
WATER 

-How an Ammonia Ice-Making Plant 
Works 



enough for home purposes that I know of is the one 
invented a dozen or fifteen years ago hy Audiffren, 
a French physicist, and in which sulphur dioxide is 
used as the refrigerant. 

160 



A HOME ICE-MAKING MACHINE 

Sulphur dioxide is a gas that liquefies much easier 
than ammonia gas, in fact all that is needed to liquefy 
it is to set the vessel containing it in a freezing mix- 
ture made of ice and salt, as previously described. 
Sulphur dioxide also liquefies at a much lower pres- 
sure than ammonia and has a much lower working 
pressure. 

Different from the ammonia ice-making machine 
in which there is a leakage of the refrigerant, as the 
ammonia is called, through the stuffing boxes and pipe 
joints, the Audiffren sulphur dioxide machine has its 
refrigerant hermetically sealed, that is, sealed air- 
tight, in the dumbbell which forms the rotating part 
of the machine. 

The machine, 2 which is shown in cross section in 
Fig. 66, consists of a shaft with a pulley on one end, 
a refrigerator drum, or hollow shell, on the other end 
and a compressor drum, or hollow shell, set on the 
shaft between them. This revolving element, or 
dumbbell, so called from its shape, rests on two bear- 
ings, one on each side of the middle drum. 

The compressor, as the pump is called, hangs on 
the shaft and it is held by a heavy lead weight, so 
that it always keeps an upright position. The piston 
which works in the cylinder of the pump is moved to 
and fro by means of a connecting rod fixed to an 
eccentric on the shaft. 

Above the cylinder and the shaft is a reservoir for 

* This ice machine is sold by The Johns-Manyille Oo., 41st St. 
and Madison Ave., New York City. 

161 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



the liquid sulphur dioxide; this connects with the 
refrigerator through a float valve and pipe in the 
hollow shaft. The float valve automatically supplies 
the correct amount of refrigerant to the refrigerator 
drum through the pipe. 

The refrigerator drum is fixed to the end of the 
Casing Casing 




-^CONDENSER RE SERVOIR— . 

Fig. 66. — A Sulphur Dioxide Ice-Making Machine 

hollow shaft in which a small opening is left and 
the liquid sulphur dioxide flows from the compressor 
drum through the shaft and out of the hole in it 
in a spray into the refrigerator drum. 

The latter revolves inside a tank of brine and 
when the evaporating sulphur dioxide has absorbed 
the heat of it the gas passes back through the space 
between the pipe and the hollow shaft to the com- 
pressor drum, where it is again compressed and 
liquefied. 

162 



A HOME ICE-MAKING MACHINE 



The tank filled with brine is connected to a coil 
of pipe in the ice-making tank, or in a refrigerator 
or both as shown in Fig. 67. The brine that the 
refrigerator drum sets in is forced through the coils 
of pipe in the ice-making tank and refrigerator by 



TO COOLING 
SURFACE 




REFRIGERATOR^ 



CONDENSING WATER 
SUPPLY PIPE^ 



STARTING SWITCH- 



JCEMOULDS 




BRINEPIPES 
INSULATED 



MOTOR 



BRINE PUMP 



BEARINGS 

Fig. 67. — A Complete Ice-Making Plant 



CONDENSING 
CONDENSER WATER OUTLET 
TANK 



a small centrifugal pump called a brine circulating 
pump. This and the ice-making machine are driven 
by an electric motor, or some other source of power. 
How to Insulate the Brine Mains.— To get the 
best results from an ice-making machine the outside 
pipes carrying the brine, or brine mains, as they are 

163 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

called, must be well insulated, that is, covered, to 
prevent them from absorbing beat. The better they 
are insulated the smaller will be the expense of mak- 
ing the ice. The best insulation for brine mains is 
cork. This can be bought of the Armstrong Cork 
Company, 50 Church St., New York City, or of the 
Johns-Manville Company, 41st St. and Madison Ave., 
New York City. 

How to Build a Refrigerator.— The refrigera- 
tor must also be thoroughly well insulated. If you 
will build one of the following materials in the order 
named, you will have one that will keep out heat 
as well or better than any you could buy. 

The materials are named in the order in which 
they are built up from the outside to the inside of 
the refrigerator. Begin with (1) one layer of J-inch 
boards for the outside and (2) cover this on the in- 
side with waterproof paper; (3) put on a layer of 
pure sheet cork 2 or 3 inches thick; (4) on this put 
another layer of waterproof paper; (5) then a layer 
of J-inch boards, and, finally, (6) line it with T V 
inch thick opaque glass, or thin sheet enameled steel. 

Some Facts About Ice Making.— The follow- 
ing facts are interesting in connection with the mak- 
ing of ice. (1) Water that has been distilled will 
freeze clear, but it is not at all necessary to use dis- 
tilled water to get nearly pure ice. 

(2) When raw water is frozen it tends to force 
the impurities in it to the center. The slower the 
water is frozen the clearer the ice will be. (3) If 

164 



A HOME ICE-MAKING MACHINE 

the water is stirred or otherwise agitated while it is 
freezing, the quicker and more surely will the im- 
pure matter be forced to the center of the cakes 
when it can be removed. Agitation helps to form 
clear, solid cakes of ice. 

(4) The rate at which ice freezes decreases direct- 
ly with the thickness of that which is already frozen. 
This being true, it follows that the time it takes 
to freeze a cake of ice increases in proportion to the 
square of the thickness of that to be frozen. 

(5) To make raw water ice, fill the cans with the 
water and agitate it until it is partly frozen. Then 
draw oft the remaining water. This will carry off 
most of the impurities that have been frozen out and 
into it. Fill the can with fresh water and agitate 
it while it is freezing as before. 

What It Costs to Make Ice.— To find the dif- 
ference in the cost of natural ice and mechanically 
made ice, you must include in the former (1) the 
cost of harvesting, which means the labor of cutting 
and storing it; (2) the melting and other wastage of 
it; and (3) the amount left over at the end of the 
season. 

The cost to make ice with an ice machine varies 
within wide limits, too, but in any case it is based on 
the cost of (1) coal, (2) labor, (3) the refrigerant 
used, (4) water and (5) the power that is used, 
loss of oil, etc. 



CHAPTEK XI 
ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME AND ON THE FARM 

As you have seen from what has gone before, you 
can have power at very little expense wherever you 
live and, having it, you can convert it into electricity 
without the slightest trouble. 

Now, while electricity is a secondary power, that 
is, it must first be generated by some other power 
such as water, steam or gas, you can do with it that 
which you cannot do with any of the others, that is, 
use it for light, heat and power at one and the same 
time. 

What to Know About Electricity.— It is easy 
to understand how a current of electricity acts and 
works if you know just three things about it, and 
these are (1) that it has quantity, or current strength, 
as it is called, (2) that it has pressure, or electromo- 
tive force, as it is termed, to drive the current along, 
and (3) that the wire in which the current is flowing 
has resistance, that is, it opposes the flow of the cur- 
rent. 

From this you will observe that an electric cur- 
rent behaves very like a current of water flowing 
through a pipe, hence, when you want to know how 

166 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

the former would act under certain conditions, just 
consider what the latter would do and you will come 
pretty close to the right solution of the problem. 
You must be careful, though, not to carry this hydrau- 
lic analogue too far. 

Current Strength and the Ampere. — When the 
poles of a battery, or a dynamo, are connected with a 
wire, or circuit as it is called, a current flows from 
the positive, or -f- side, to the negative, or — side. 

Now the quantity of electricity, or current 
strength, or just current for short, as it is called, 
flowing in a wire or circuit depends on the pressure, 
or electromotive force, that is driving the current 
along the wire, and the resistance of the latter. 

The greater the pressure, the larger the current 
that can be forced to flow through the wire; on the 
other hand, the higher the resistance of the wire, the 
smaller the current that can be forced through it. 

To measure the amount of current that is flowing 
through a wire, or circuity a unit called the ampere 
is used. 1 ampere is the amount of current that 1 
volt of electromotive force will drive through a wire 
having a resistance of 1 ohm. The amount of cur- 
rent is measured by an instrument called an am- 
meter. 

Electromotive Force and the Volt. — The pressure 
that forces electricity along a wire, or electromotive 
force, is measured by a unit called the volt. A volt 
is the electromotive force needed to drive 1 ampere 
through a wire having a resistance of 1 ohm. 

167 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

The pressure or electromotive force is often called 
the voltage and it is measured with an instrument 
called a voltmeter. A dry cell gives a pressure of 
about 2 volts, and lamps, heating apparatus and 
motors for home electric plants are built to work 
with a pressure of 32 volts. Ordinary direct cur- 
rent power plants generate current at 110 volts. 

Resistance and the Ohm. — A wire of whatever 
size always resists the flow of a current through it 
The resistance depends on the kind of metal the wire 
is made of, its diameter and its length. 

The unit of resistance is the ohm. 1 ohm is the 
resistance of a circuit which requires a pressure of 1 
volt to send a current of 1 ampere through it. An 
ordinary telegraph wire 400 feet long has a resistance 
of about 1 ohm. Resistance is measured with a 
resistance box, but it is easy to figure it if you know 
the current and voltage. 

The Relation Between Current, Pressure and Re- 
sistance.— -From the above you will see that there is 
a definite relation between current, pressure and re- 
sistance. This being true, it is obvious that, if you 
know the value of any two of them, you can easily 
figure out the value of the remaining one. 

To do this just remember these three rules: 

(1) That volts -7- ohms = amperes; 

(2) That amperes X resistance = volts; and 

(3) That volts -~- amperes = resistance. 

With these fundamental laws in mind, you are ready 
now to get acquainted with the power plant and sub- 

168 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

sidiary apparatus for generating and using electric 
current. 

What an Electric Installation Consists of.— 
There are four chief parts to an electric power plant 
and these are (1) the prime mover, or motive power; 
(2) the dynamo, which generates the current; (3) 
the storage battery; and (4) the switchboard. 

The installation further consists of (5) the trans- 
mission lines; (6) the service wires; and (7) the 
devices that use the current. All the various powers 
that can be used for running dynamos have been de- 
scribed in the foregoing chapters and the methods by 
which these prime movers can be used to drive the 
dynamos have also been described. 

The Dynamo Electric Machine. — There are two 
kinds of electric current used for lighting, heating 
and power and these are (1) direct current and (2) 
alternating current. While both of these can be used 
equally well for lighting and heating, direct current 
is better for running motors, and the cost of direct 
current motors is less than for alternating current 
motors. 

Oppositely alternating current can be transmitted 
farther over smaller wires with less loss of power 
than direct current. But for all ordinary work 
direct current is the most satisfactory. Hence, for 
your power plant you should install a direct current 
machine, or dynamo, as it is called. 

How a Dynamo Is Made.— A dynamo is a very 
simple machine and consists of two chief parts and 

169 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

these are (1) the armature, or revolving element in 
which the currents are set up, and (2) the field mag- 
nets between whose poles the armature rotates. 

The armature is formed of a core of very soft iron 
and lengthwise on this a large number of turns of in- 
sulated copper wire are wound; the turns of wire 
are divided into coils, and the ends of each coil are 
connected to the opposite segments of a commutator. 




Fig. 68. — How a Current is Set Up in a Moving 
Wire 



The commutator is made up of a number of cop- 
per segments, or bars, separated by strips of mica 
to insulate them from each other. Together they 
form a ring, and this is fixed to the shaft that car- 
ries the armature. As the currents are set up in the 
coils of the armature, they flow to the commutator 
bars, where they are taken off by a pair of soft car- 
bon brushes which press on each side of the commu- 
tator. The field magnets are also made of very soft 

170 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

iron and these are wound with insulated copper wire. 

How a Dynamo Generates Current.— A simple 
way to show how a dynamo generates a current is 
to connect the ends of a copper wire with a galvanom- 
eter and move the wire quickly across the pole of a 
magnet, as shown at A in Fig. 68. 

The instant you do this the needle of the galvanom- 



f/ELD 
MAGNET 




HELD 
MAGNET 



IOOPOFW/RF 

w/re c/RCurr 

Fig. 69. — The Principle op the Dynamo 



eter will swing and this shows that a current is flow- 
ing in the circuit; further, this experiment shows 
that whenever a wire cuts the magnetic lines of force, 
the latter are changed into an electric current which 
is set up in the wire. 

To make the wire cut the lines of magnetic force, 
form it into a loop, as shown in Fig. 69, and fix it to 
a spindle with a crank. When you turn the crank 
in the direction of the arrow, currents will be con- 

171 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

stantly set up in the loop of wire and will flow around 
it, first in one direction and then in the other, for 
every time the loop moves from one pole to the other 
the current set up in it changes its direction. Hence, 
there will be two alternations of the current for 
every revolution of the loop of wire. 

By winding the wire on a cylinder of soft iron, 
the strength of the magnetic lines of force will be 




SHUNT 
CIRCUIT 



LAMP50R 
OTHER LO/fO 



Fig. 70. — How a Dynamo is Wound 



greater, for magnetism flows through iron easier than 
through air and this, of course, increases the strength 
of the current set up in the wire. 

To make the currents that are set up in the coils 
of the armature flow in one direction, the ends of 
the coils are connected with the segments of the com- 
mutator. For every coil on the armature, which is 
made up of a large number of turns of fine wire, 
there must be a pair of separate and oppositely set 
segments in the commutator. 

A small part of the current taken off by the brushes 
172 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

from the commutator flows back through the coils of 
the field magnets and so keeps them magnetized. In 
this way the magnetic lines of the fields are changed 
into electric currents by the armature, which gen- 
erates enough additional current to light lamps, heat 
sadirons, wash clothes and do other useful work. 




Fig. 71. — A Portable Electric Motor 

Dynamos are wound in different ways but the kind 
you want for your lighting plant is a compound 
wound dynamo as shown in Fig 70. 

The Electric Motor.— Away back in Centennial 
days, that is, in 1876, some one found that if a cur- 
rent was passed through a dynamo it would run as 
a motor and develop power; Fig. 71 shows a portable 

173 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

motor capable of doing all kinds of work wherever 
you want it done. To find the horse power an elec- 
tric motor is using or a dynamo is delivering in cur- 
rent, or a lamp or any other piece of electrical ap- 
paratus takes, you should know first that the unit 
of electric power is the watt and that there are 746 
watts in 1 horse power. 

To find the number of watts that is being generated 
or used, all you have to do is to multiply the cur- 
rent (amperes) by the pressure (volts) 

orW = CXE 

Then to find the horse power, use this formula : 

C XE 



H.P. 



746 



where H.P. is the horse power and is what you 

want to find, 
C is the current in amperes which you know, 
E is the pressure in volts which you also know and 
746 is the number of watts in 1 H.P. 

Thus, if a 30 volt motor takes 6 amperes to run 
it, substitute these values for those in the formula 
to find the horse power developed thus : 

6 X 30 



H.P. 
or H.P. 



746 
180 



746 

or H.P. == .23 or very nearly J horse power. 
1T4. 



174 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

How a Storage Battery Is Made.— When two 

lead plates are set in a jar of dilute sulphuric acid, 
they form the simplest kind of a storage battery. 

To charge a storage battery, a dynamo must be 
connected with the lead plates and after it is charged 
it will, in turn, deliver a constant current. To make 
the lead plates more active, holes, or grooves, are 
drilled or cut in them, as shown in Fig. 72. The 
negative plates are filled with spongy lead, and those 
in the positive plates are filled with red oxide of lead. 

A storage battery cell is built up of several plates 
and each positive plate is set between two negative 
plates. This is to keep the positive plate from warp- 
ing, or buckling, as it is called, when the cell is 
charged. A separator made of thin wood is placed be- 
tween each positive and negative plate to keep them 
the right distance apart. A number of the plates, or 
groups, are then assembled into an element and set 
into a jar containing the electrolyte, that is, a solu- 
tion made of pure sulphuric acid and water. 

All of the negative plates of a group are connected 
together and all of the positive plates of a group 
are connected together and all together they form an 
element. Finally, an element in a jar filled with 
electrolyte forms a cell, see Fig. 72, and two or 
more cells connected together constitute a battery. 

How to Use a Storage Battery.— Bear in mind 
these two things, first: (1) that the number and the 
size of the lead plates determine the amount of cur- 
rent, or amperes, that the battery can be charged 

175 



P05JTJVE 
NEGATIVE STRPp 
STRAP 




NEGATIVE 
GROUP POSmYi 
GROUP 



WOOP 



PUTTING THE 



WOOD 




kSEMRATOR £t&f£NTINJM. 




SUPPING W THE 

separators THE C£lL £ EflPr 

FOR USE 

Fig. 72.— The Parts op a Storage Battery 
176 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

with and will deliver and (2) that each cell has an 
electromotive force, or voltage, of 2 volts, regardless 
of the number of plates and the sizes of them. For 
this reason the voltage is constant and the current 
varies according to the load. 

A storage battery for home lighting and power 
circuits is made up of 16 cells, and these give 32 
volts. But batteries can be had in several different 
sizes, so that you can store up enough current to 
light as many lamps at one time or for as long a 
time without recharging it as you may need. 

A battery is rated by the number of ampere hours 
it will give. Thus, a 44 ampere hour battery will 
deliver 1 ampere for 44 hours or 44 amperes for 1 
hour or any mean, that is, the equivalent of these 
figures, according to the load it must take care of. 

As an example, a 32-volt, 16-candle power lamp 
takes about If amperes to light it. Hence you can 
keep 1 lamp lit on a 44 ampere hour battery for 25 
hours, or 5 lamps of the same candle power for 5 
hours, without recharging the battery. 

The Switchboard and Its Instruments.— The 
next thing is to connect the dynamo with the storage 
battery and lights and other apparatus that uses the 
current. This is done through the switchboard. 

This is a panel of hard fiber, or better, of slate, 
and it has on it (1) a voltmeter, (2) an ammeter, 
(3) a rheostat, (4) an automatic cutout, (5) a dou- 
ble-throw switch and (6) a pair of enclosed fuses. 

177 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

The connections of the whole installation are shown 
diagrammatically in Fig. 73. 

The voltmeter is an instrument that shows at a 
glance if the dynamo is generating current and the 
storage battery is delivering its full voltage. The 
ammeter tells how much current your lights and other 
apparatus are using. 



/ 



//A 



* 




t 



$ 



R£S/STAMCE 



STARTING 
5WJTCH 



1W, 

X jf Vtoughts 



AMMETER 



Fig. 73. — Wiring Diagram of a Storage Battery 
System 



The rheostat is a variable resistance. By turning 
a small hand wheel you can cut in or out more or 
less resistance wire and so regulate the voltage of 
the dynamo and keep it constant, should the speed 
of the engine vary too much. The automatic cutout, 
or current breaker, is a switch that closes the circuit 
which connects the dynamo and the storage battery, 
when the latter needs recharging, and opens the cir- 
cuit when the battery is fully charged. 

There is also a double-pole, double-throw switch; 
178 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

when you want to start the engine pull the handle 
down and it closes the dynamo and storage battery 
circuit. The current from the latter flow3 into the 
former and runs it as a motor. This in turn starts 
the engine. After the engine is started, you throw 
the switch up and, when the dynamo is generating 
current at its full voltage, the automatic cutout closes 



SWITCHBOARD 



pym 



OIL EN G WE 



STORAGE BATTERY 




Fig. 74. — The Delco-Light Direct Drive Dynamo 



the circuit and the current begins to charge the stor- 
age battery. 

The fuses are used to protect the apparatus from 
surges and overloads. They are made of a lead and 
tin alloy which melts at a low temperature. Eigs. 
74 and 75 show two different types of home electric 
power plants. 

Wire for the Transmission Line.— For a 32 
volt installation the distance between the power plant 
and the place where the current is used should not 

179 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



be more than 500 feet, because there is a drop of 
voltage on the line no matter how large the wires 
forming it may be. 

Where a greater distance than 500 feet is to be 
covered, a 110 volt installation mnst be used. Bare 
copper or aluminum wire, 1 or insulated copper wire, 



SWITCH 
BO/?#P 




OIL ENGINE 

Fig. 75. 



The Morse Fairbanks Belt-Driven 
Dynamo 



supported on porcelain or glass petticoat insulators, 2 
can be used for the transmission lines. 

Out and Inside Wiring. — For wires that are to 
run between buildings, use approved weatherproof 
wire; and for inside wiring use rubber-covered wire. 

1 For prices send to the Aluminum Company of America, 120 
Broadway, New York City. 

2 For prices write to the Manhattan Electrical Company, 
Park Place, New York City. 

180 



ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 

Inside wire must be fastened to the walls either with 
porcelain knobs, so that they will be kept 1 inch away 
from the wall, or put in wood or metal molding 
made for the purpose, or else run between the walls 
in metal ducts. 3 

The lamps, heating apparatus and motors must be 
connected across the main line circuit, as shown in 
Fig. 76, or in parallel, as it is called. 




POWER 



Fig. 76. — Lamps, Heating Apparatus and Motors are 
Connected Up in Parallel 



What an Electric Plant Will Do.— Above all it 

will (1) light your home, barn and grounds and 
make life worth living; then (2) it will give you heat 

3 Before buying any kind of electrical equipment or doing 
any kind of wiring, write to the National Board of Fire Under- 
writers, 76 William St., New York City, for a booklet 
called the "National Electric Code," which will be sent you 
free of charge. Also write to the Manhattan Electric Co., 
Park Place, New York City, for a catalogue of materials ap- 
proved by the above Board for wiring. A very complete de- 
scription of how to do electric wiring is given in "The Book of 
Electricity, ' ' by the present author and published by D. Apple- 
ton and Company, New York. 

181 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

for curling irons, flatirons, percolators, toasters and 
other utensils and conveniences; (3) it will give you 
power to run a tumble churn, coffee mill, cream sepa- 
rator, dishwasher, grindstone, horse clippers, ice- 
cream freezer, massage vibrator, meat grinder, milk- 
ing machine, pumps, sewing machine, vacuum cleaner, 
washing machine, milking machine, etc. ; and, finally 
(4) all of these things make for a life which will keep 
the boys and girls at home and which you and your 
wife cannot afford to be without. 



CHAPTER XII 
USEFUL RULES AND TABLES 



TABLE 1 

Number and Weight of Pine Shingles to Cover 1 Square of 

Roof 

1 square = 10 X 10 feet or 100 square feet 



Number of inches exposed to 
weather 

Number of shingles per square 
of roof 

Weight of shingles on 1 
square in pounds 



4 


*A 


5 


&A 


900 


800 


720 


655 


216 


192 


173 


157 



6 
600 
144 



(The number of shingles per square is for common gable 
roofs. For hip roofs add 5 per cent to the above figures. A 
bundle contains 250 shingles and 1000 four-inch shingles 
weigh 240 pounds.) 

TABLE II 

Amount of Water that Can he Raised per Hour by Man, 
Horse and Wind Power 



Power 



25 feet 



50 feet 



100 feet 



Man with frequent 

rests 

8 foot windmill 

12 " " 

Horse on treadmill . . . 



600 gallons 
810 " 
2,400 " 
7,050 " 

183 



800 gallons 
400 " 
1,320 " 
3,200 " 



150 gallons 
325 " 
685 " 
1,760 " 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 



TABLE III 
Size, Length and Number of Shingle Nails to the Pound 



Size 


Length and Gauge 


Approximate 

Number to 

Pound 


Inches 


Number 


3d 

3^d 
4d 
5d 
6d 
7d 
8d 
9d 
lOd 


m 
m 
m 
m 

2 

2^ 
3 


13 
12H 

12 
12 
12 
11 
11 
11 
10 


429 
345 
274 
235 
204 
139 
125 
114 
83 



TABLE IV 
Average Weights and Volumes of Fuels 



Anthracite coal 
Bituminous coal 
Charcoal 
Coke 



1 cubic foot weighs 55 to 65 pounds, 

1 ton (2240 pounds) = 34 to 41 cubic feet 

1 cubic foot weighs 50 to 55 pounds, 

1 ton (2240 pounds) = 41 to 45 cubic feet 

1 cubic foot weighs 18 to 183^ pounds, 

1 ton (2240 pounds) = 120 to 124 cubic feet 

1 cubic foot weighs 28 pounds, 

1 ton (2240 pounds) = 80 cubic feet 



(One bushel of anthracite coal weighs on an average of 67 
pounds; one bushel of bituminous coal 60 pounds; one bushel 
of charcoal 20 pounds; and one bushel of coke 40 pounds.) 



184 



USEFUL RULES AND TABLES 

TABLE V 

Some Useful Arithmetical Rules 

Knowing Diameter to Find Circumference of a Circle. 

(1) Multiply the diameter by 3.1416, or (2) divide the 
diameter by 0.3183. 

Knowing Circumference to Find Diameter of a Circle. 

(1) Multiply the circumference by 0.3183, or (2) divide 
the circumference by 3.1416. 

Knowing Circumference to Find Radius of a Circle. 

(1) Multiply the circumference by 0.15915, or (2) divide 
the circumference by 6.28318. 

To Find the Area of a Circle. 

(1) Multiply the square of the radius by 3.1416, or (2) 
multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, or (3) mul- 
tiply the square of the circumference by .07958, or (4) 
multiply the circumference by £ of the diameter. 

To Find the Area of a Sector of a Circle. 
Multiply the length by i of the radius. 

To Find the Area of the Solid Part of a Ring. 

(1) Subtract the area of the inner circle from the area 
of the outer circle, or (2) multiply the sum of the diam- 
eters of the two circles by the difference of the diameters 
and the product obtained by .7854. 

To Find the Area of an Ellipse. 
Multiply the product of the two diameters by .7854. 

To Find the Area of a Triangle. 
Multiply the base by £ of the altitude. 
185 



THE AMATEUR MECHANIC 

To Find the Area of a Parallelogram. 
Multiply the base by the altitude. 

To Find the Area of a Trapezoid. 

Multiply the altitude by \ the sum of the parallel sides. 

To Find the Area of a Trapezium. 

Divide the figure into two triangles, find the area of the 
triangles, and add them together. 

To Find the Surface of a Sphere. 

Multiply the diameter by itself, that is, square it, and 
then multiply this product by 3.1416. 

To Find the Volume of a Sphere. 

Multiply the diameter by itself twice, that is, cube it, and 
then multiply this product by 3.1416 and divide the quotient 
by 6. 

To Find the Volume of a Cylinder. 

Multiply the diameter of the tank, or other cylinder, by 
itself, that is, square it; multiply this product by .7854 
and, finally, multiply this last product by its height. 



INDEX 



Absolute zero, 157 

Action of water pumps, 59 

Actual horse power of a 

water wheel, 110 
Aggregate for concrete, 41 
Air, 94 
Air pressure gauge, 53 

water supply system, 51 
Alloys, anti-friction, 87 
Aluminum wire for trans- 
mission line, 180 
Ammeter for switchboard, 

177 
Ammonia, 159 
gas, 159 
liquid, 159 
refrigerating machines, 

159 
water, 159 
Ampere, hour denned, 177 
Ampere, unit of current 

strength, 167 
Anti-friction alloys, 87 
Architect's scale, 2 
Area, how to find, of cir- 
cle, 185 
of an ellipse, 185 
of a parallelogram, 186 
of sector of a circle, 
185 



Area, how to find, of solid 
part of a ring, 185 
of trapezium, 186 
of trapezoid, 186 
of triangle, 185 
Arithmetical rules, some 

useful, 185 
Armature of a dynamo, 170 
Atlas Portland cement, 45 
Automatic air water sup- 
ply system, 55 
Automatic cut-out, 177 
Automobile as a power 
plant, how to use, 
152 
Auto-pneumatic water sup- 
ply system, 55 

Babbitt bearings, 87 
Ball bearings, 88 
Basement walls, 26 
Battery electric spark ig- 
niter, 138 
Bearings, Babbitt, 87 

ball, 88 

bronze, 87 

phosphor-bronze, 88 

roller, 88 
Belt dressing, 82 

how to lace a, 81 



187 



INDEX 



Belt dressing, 

how to splice a, 181 
lacing, metal, 82 
needed, how to find the 

size of a, 80 
splice cement, 81 
splices, kinds of, 81 
Bevel gears, 83, 84 
Blue book of rope trans- 
mission, 150 
Board feet, 11 

measure-table, essex, 11 
Boiler horse power, what 
it is, 129 
steam, see Steam boil- 
er 
Boiling point, 65 

water, how to purify it, 47 
Bonds for brickwork, kinds 

of, 35 
Book of electricity, 181 
Bourdon steam gauge, 119 
Brace measure table, 10 
Breast water wheel, 100 
Bricks and brickwork, 33 
colors of, 33 
kinds of, 33 
laying, 35 
Brickwork, bonds for, 35 
measuring, 36 
mortar for, 33 
table of wall thickness, 
bricks thick and 
bricks per super- 
ficial foot, 36 



Brine mains, how to in- 
sulate, 163 
Brine tanks, 163 
British thermal unit, 66 
Bronze bearings, 87 
Brown and Sharp vernier 

caliper, 15 
Builder's hardware, 26 
Building, frame of a, 30 

kinds of wood for, 31 

with concrete, 40 ; see also 
Concrete 

materials, kinds of, 26 
Buildings, basement walls 
for, 26 

chimneys for, 26 

comparative cost of, 
25 

floors for, 26 

kinds of, 25 

piling for, 26 

plastering for, 26 

roofing for, 26 

shingles for, 31 

sills for, 30 

studding for, 30 

trim and finish, 26 

walls for, 26 

weather-boards for, 31 
Build your house, when 
you, 25 

Caliper, 16 
micrometer, 16 
vernier, 15 



188 



INDEX 



Carburetors for gasoline 

engine, 141 
Carpenter's level, 20 
rule, 1 

steel square, 7 
Carpenters' and mason's 

level, 28 
Cement belt splice, 81 
Centigrade thermometer, 

157 
Centigrade thermometer 

scale, 64 
Centimeter denned, 1 
Centrifugal force of water, 

102 
Centrifugal pump, how it 

works, 59 
Chimneys, for buildings, 26 
Circle, to find area of a, 185 
area of a sector of a, 185 
circumference of a, 185 
diameter of a, 185 
radius of a, 185 
Clutch for an internal com- 
bustion engine, 135 
Cold, see Cooling 
Cold, see Freezing mixtures 
Cold, how it is produced, 

158 
Cold, what it is, 157 
Columbia pattern vernier 

caliper, 15 
Combustion, what it is, 63 
Commutator of a dynamo, 
170 



Comparative cost of build- 
ings, 25 
Compound wound dynamo, 

173 
Concrete, 41 
aggregate, 41 
blocks, 43 
building with, 40 
crushed stone or gravel 

for, 42 
how to mix, 42 
how to place, 43 
lean mixture, 42 
machinery, 44 
medium mixture, 42 
mixtures of, 42 
Portland cement for, 45 
rich mixture, a, 4 
standard mixture, the, 

42 
surfaces, finishing, 44 
what is, 41 
Condensation, what it 

means, 158 
Cooling by evaporation, 

158 
Cork for insulating brine 

mains, 164 
Cost of, 25 
buildings, comparative, 

25 
harvesting ice, 165 
making ice, 165 
woods, relative, 32 
Creosoted wood, 32 



189 



INDEX 



Crown gears, 83, 85 
Crushed stone or gravel for 

concrete, 42 
Current, 169 
alternating, 169 
ampere, 167 
direct, 169 
how it is set up in a wire, 

170 
relation between pres- 
sure, resistance and, 
168 
storage battery will de- 
liver, 175 
strength, 167 
Cylinder, to find the vol- 
ume of a, 186 

Diameter of a circle, to 

find, 185 
Direct drive dynamo, 179 
Distilling water to purify 

it, 48 
Dressing for belts, 82 
Dynamo, 179 
direct drive, 179 
electric machine, the, 

169 
how it is made, 170 
how to use, 151 
Dynamometer for measur- 
ing horse power, 91 

Efficiency of water tur- 
bine, 103 



Electric, 73 

heating plants, 73 

installation, what it con- 
sists of, 169 

lighting system, 150 

machine, dynamo, 169 

motor, 173 

plant, what it will do, 
181 

plants, switchboard for, 
177 

power plant, parts of. 
169 

power transmission, 149 

spark igniter for gas en- 
gine, 138 
Electrical rules, fundamen- 
tal, 168 
Electricity, 148 

changing wind power 
into, 148 

current strength and the 
ampere, 167 

electromotive force and 
the volt, 167 

farm, on the, 166 

home, in the, 166 

relation between current, 
pressure and resist- 
ance, 168 

resistance and the ohm, 
168 

watt, unit of electric 
power, 173 

what to know about, 166 



190 



INDEX 



Electromotive force, rela- 
tion between pres- 
sure, current and, 
168 
Electromotive force and 

the volt, 167 
Electrolyte for a storage 

battery, 175 
Element of a storage bat- 
tery, 175 
Ellipse, to find area of an, 

185 
Energy, 113 
change of, 113 
of steam, 112 
Engine, see Gas engine and 

Steam engine 
Engines, 
Gasoline, see 
Hot air, see 

power of gas, gaso- 
line, hot air and oil, 
145 
sizes of gas, gasoline, hot 
air and oil, 145 
Essex board measure table, 

11 
Evaporation, cooling by, 
158 

Fahrenheit thermometer, 

157 
scale, 64 
Earm, electricity on the, 

166 



Field magnets of a dynamo, 

170 
Filter, Pasteur water, 48 
Filtering, water to purify 

it, 47 
Finish for buildings, 26 
Finishing concrete sur- 
faces, 44 
Fire, means for making a, 

63 
Fireplace, cozy, 66 
Fire underwriters, national 

board of, 146-181 
Fittings of a steam boiler, 

114 
Flash point of lubricants, 

90 
Flexible rules, 5 
Floors for buildings, 26 
Flume for a water wheel, 

103 
Flywheel on an engine, 12S 
Force pump, how made, 

58 
Formula for finding, 

actual horse power of a 

water wheel, 110 
amount of water deliv- 
ered by a ram, the, 

110 
amperes (current 

strength), 168 
area of a circle, 185 
ellipse, an, 185 
parallelogram, a, 186 



191 



INDEX 



Formula for finding, 
area of a sector of a 
circle, the, 185 
solid part of a ring, 

185 
trapezium, a, 186 
trapezoid, a, 186 
triangle, a, 185 
circumference of a cir- 
cle, 185 
diameter of a circle, 

185 
heating surface of a 

steam boiler, 130 
height of buildings, 98 
horse power of 
boiler, a, 129 
driving a machine, for, 

91 
electric current, 173 
internal combustion 

engines, 146 
steam engine, a, 130 
water wheel, a, 109 
ohms (resistance), 168 
radius of a circle, 185 
belt needed, a, 80 
gears, 86 
pulley, a, 79 
volts (electromotive 

force), 168 
volume of, 

cylinder, a, 186 
sphere, a, 186 
watts generated, 173 



Formula for finding capac- 
ity of a water tank, 
54 
Frame of a building, 30 
Framing square, carpen- 
ter's, 7 
Framing table, rafter, 12 
Freezing, 

how to prevent water 

pipes from, 60 
mixtures, 158 
point, 65 
Friction alloys, anti-, 87 
Friction, 87 
how to reduce, 87 
lubricants to reduce, 89 
rolling, 89 
sliding, 87 
what it does, 87 
Friction drive (transmis- 
sion), 152 
Frost box, how to make a, 

60 
Frozen, what to do when a 

water pipe is, 61 
Fuel, 135 

hot air engine, for, 135 

reservoir for oil engine, 

143 

Fuels, table average, weights 

and volumes of, 184 

Fuses, enclosed, 177 

Galvanometer, 171 
Gas engine, 135 

192 



INDEX 



Gas engine, 

how it works, 139 

how to find horse power 
of, 146 

igniters for, 137 

parts of a, 135 

timing gears for, 137 
Gas heaters, 73 
Gases, how to liquefy, 159 
Gasoline engine, 

carburetors for, 141 

how it works, 141 
Gasoline engines, 146 

how to find horse power 
of, 146 
Gasoline power, how to 

use, 151 
Gauge, 53 

air pressure, 53 

water, 53 
Gauges, 21 

some useful, 21 

testing, for, 20 
Gears, 83 

bevel, 83, 84 

crown, 83;, 85 

how to find the size of, 
86 

internal, 83 

miter, 83, 84 

plain, 83 

spoked, 83 

spur, 83 

timing for a gas engine, 
137 



Gears, 

webbed, 83 
windmill, 95 
worm, 85 
Gears, see Ratchet wheels, 
Ratchet racks, Pawls, 
and Sprocket wheels 
Gears and toothed wheels, 

82 
Governor, 128 
how it acts, 128 
oil engine, throttling 
for, 144 
Gravel or crushed stone for 

concrete, 42 
Gravity water supply sys- 
tem, 51 
Gross horse power of a 
water wheel, 110 

Hardware, builders', 26 
Head of water, 

means, what, 108 

your supply, how to 
measure, 109 
Height of buildings, how to 

find, 98 
Height of windmills, 98 
High pressure steam boil- 
ers, 114 
Home, 166 

electricity in the, 166 

handy book, 47 

heating plant for your, 63 

ice making machine, 157 



193 



INDEX 



Home, storage battery far 

lighting the, 177 
Horizontal tubular steam 

boilers, 144 
Horse power, 129 

boiler, how to measure, 
129 

dynamometer for meas- 
uring, 91 

internal combustion en- 
gines of, how to find, 
146 

measuring with prony 
brake, 91 

needed to drive a ma- 
chine, how to find, 
191 

steam engine, how to 
find, 130 

water wheel, actual, 110 

water wheel, gross, 110 

water wheel, how to find, 
109 

watts in a, 173 

windmills, of, 97 
Hot air engine, 132 

advantages of, 132 

fuel for, 135 

how it works, 132 

parts of, 132 

power of, 145 
Hot air engines, 132 
Hot air furnace, 67 
Hot air power, how to use, 
134, 151 



Hot tube igniter, 137 
Hot water heating plants, 

69 
Heat, 

British thermal unit, 66 

how it is measured, 66 

how it warms a room, 65 

latent in steam, 127 

unit of, 66 

what it is, 63 
Heating plant for your 

home, a, 63 
Heating plants, 67 

cheap old stove, 67 

electric, 73 

fan for hot air system, 
68 

fireplace, the, 66 

gas, 73 

hot air furnace, 67 

hot water system, 69 

kinds of, 66 

noise in steam pipes, 73 

radiators, 74 

register for hot air, 67 

steam, 70 

steam gauge for, 72 

to find size of, 73 
Heating surface of a 
steam boiler, how to 
figure, 130 
Heating and ventilating, 

66 
How to build with concrete, 
40 



194 



INDEX 



How to build a refrigera- How to find, 



tor, 164 


area, 


How a carburetor is made, 


ellipse, 185 


141 


parallelogram, 186 


How a carburetor works, 


sector of a circle, 185 


141 


solid part of a ring, 


How cold is produced, 158 


185 


How a current is set up in 


trapezium, 186 


a wire, 170 


trapezoid, 186 


How a dynamo generates 


triangle, 185 


current, 171 


circumference of a cir- 


How a dynamo is made, 


cle, 185 


169 


diameter of a circle, 


How a dynamo is wound, 


185 


172 


electrical horse power, 


How to figure, 


173 


amperes, 168 


height of buildings, etc., 


capacity of a water tank, 


98 


54 


horse power 


heating surface of a 


needed to drive a ma- 


steam boiler, 130 


chine, 91 


horse power, boiler, of a, 


water wheel, 109 


129 


length and pitch of raft- 


internal combustion 


ers, 12 


engines, of, 146 


number of watts gener- 


steam engine, of a, 130 


ated, 173 


ohms, 168 


power of a hot air en- 


size of a belt needed, 80 


gine, 145 


volts, 168 


radius of a circle, 185 


How to find, 


size of, 


the amount of water de- 


gears, 86 


livered by a ram, 


heating plants, 73 


110 


pulley, 79 


area, 


speed of a shaft, pulley 


circle, 185 


of flywheel, 77 



195 



INDEX 



How to find, 


How to lay out, right 


surface speed, 78 


angles, 7 


volume of a cylinder, 


How to learn the triangu- 


186 


lar scale, 2 


volume of a sphere, 186 


How a lift pump is made, 


How a flywheel acts, 128 


57 


How a force pump is 


How to liquefy gases, 159 


made, 58 


How machines are made 


How to freeze mercury, 


and used, 75 


159 


How to make a cement belt 


How a gas engine works, 


splice, 81 


139 


How to make a friction 


How a gasoline engine 


drive, 152 


works, 141 


How to make a frost box, 


How to get good ventila- 


60 


tion, 73 


How to make a still, 


How the governor of a 


49 


steam engine acts, 


How to make stucco mor- 


128 


tar, 40 


How heat is measured, 66 


How to measure the head 


How heat warms a room, 


of water of your sup- 


65 


ply, 109 


How a hot air furnace 


How to mix concrete, 42 


works, 67 


How an oil engine works, 


How a hot air engine is 


142 


made and works, 132 


How to place concrete, 


How a hydraulic ram is 


43 


made, 106 


How Portland cement is 


How a hydraulic ram 


made, 41 


works, 106 


How Portland cement is 


How a jet water wheel 


tested, 41 


works, 101 


How to prevent water pipes 


How to lace a belt, 81 


from freezing, 60 


How to lay out, 


How to purify water, 47 


octagon or 8-square, 9 


How to put on stucco, 39 



196 



INDEX 



How to read, 
micrometer, 16 
ten-thousandths microm- 
eter, 19 
vernier caliper, 15 
How to reduce friction, 

87 
How a safety valve is 

made, 121 
How a safety valve works, 

121 
How to splice a belt, 81 
How to start an oil engine, 

144 
How a steam boiler is 

made, 114 
How a steam engine is 

made, 122 
How a steam engine works, 

126 
How a steam gauge acts, 

113 
How a steam gauge is 

made, 119 
How steam is measured, 

113 
How a steam whistle is 

made and works, 121 
How a storage battery is 

made, 125 
How to tell good lumber, 

28 
How to test sand, 41 
How to thaw a frozen water 

pipe, 61 



How to transmit power, 

149 
How to use, 

an automobile as a power 

plant, 152 
carpenter's rule, 2 
dynamo, 151 
hot air engine, 134 
hot air power, 151 
lubricants, 89 
metal belt lacing, 82 
oil and gasoline power, 

151 
planimeter, 23 
protractor, 23 
steam power, 150 
storage battery, 175 
stucco, 38 
triangular scale, 4 
vernier, 15 
water power, 149 
wind power, 148 
How a water gauge is 

made, 117 
How a water turbine is 

made, 103 
How a water turbine 

works, 102 
How water wheels work, 

100 
House, when you build 

your, 25 
Hydraulic ram, 105 
how it is made, 106 
how it works, 106 



197 



INDEX 



Hydraulic ram, to find the 
amount of water de- 
livered by a, 110 
Hydraulic rams, 
capacity of, 107 
sizes of, 107 

Ice harvesting, cost of, 165 
Ice machines, 164 

cork for insulating brine 

mains for, 164 
insulating brine mains 

for, 163 
see also Kefrigerating 
machines 
Ice making, 165 
cost of, 165 
facts about, 164 
machine for the home, 

157 
machines, 159 

brine tanks of, 163 
Igniter, 

electric spark, 138 
hot tube, 137 
Igniters for gas engine, 

137 
Inclined plane, the, 75, 76 
Insulating brine mains, 163 
Insulators, petticoat, 180 
Internal combustion en- 
gine, 
see Gas engine 
see Gasoline engine 
see Oil engine 



Internal gears, 83 
Iron pipe, 

for plumbing, 61 

sizes for plumbing, ta- 
ble of, 62 

Jet water wheel, 100 

Kinds of, 

steam boilers, 114 
steam engines, 123 
Kinetic heat in steam, 
113 

Lace a belt, how to, 81 

Lacing, metal belt, 82 

Latent heat in steam, 113- 
127 

Lath, ribbed metal, 38 

Laying brick, 35 

Laying out, 

octagon or 8-square, 9 
right angles, 7 

Length of rafters, 12 

Level, upright, 20 

Lever, the, 75, 76 

Lift pump is made, how 
the, 57 

Lighting the home with 
a storage battery, 
177 

Lime for mortar, 34 

Liquefaction of sulphur di- 
oxide gas, 161 

Liquefying gases, 159 



198 



INDEX 



Locomotive steam boilers, 

114, 115 
Lubricants, 

flash point of, 90 

how to use, 89 

kinds of, 89 

specific gravity of, 90 
Lumber, 26 

how to tell, 28 

see Seasoning 

using to the best advan- 
tage, 29 

Machine, 

how to find horse power 
needed to drive a, 91 
ice making, 157 
Machines, how made and 

used, 75 
Machinery, windmills for 

running, 97 
Machinists' scale, 2 
Magnetic lines of force, 

171 
Magneto-electric spark ig- 
niter, 139 
Making the steam engine 

work for you, 112 
Mason's level, 20 
Materials, kinds of build- 
ing, 26 
Measure, 

brace table, 10 
Essex board table, 11 
Roe tape, 7 



Measures, steel tape, 6 
Measuring, 

brickwork, 36 

heat, 66 

horse power with a dy- 
namometer, 91 

rules and tools, 1 

stonework, 38 
Mechanical movements, 75, 
76 

inclined plane 

lever 

pulley 

screw 

wedge 

wheel and axle 
Mechanical powers, 75 
Mercury, how to freeze it, 

159 
Metal belt lacing, 82 
Metal lath for stucco work, 

38 
Micrometer, 

caliper, 16 

how to read a, 16 

reading to ten-thou- 
sandths, 19 
Miter gears, 83, 84 
Mixing, 

concrete, 42 

valve for oil engine, 143 
Mixtures of concrete, 42 
Mortar, 

brickwork, for, 33 

lime for, 34 



199 



INDEX 



Mortar, 

sand for, 34 

stonework, for, 37 
Motor car, how to use as a 
power plant, 152 

National Board of Eire Un- 
derwriters, 146-181 
National electric code, 181 
Needle nozzle for water 
wheel, 101 

Octagon or 8-square, lay- 
ing out an, 9 
Ohm, unit of resistance, 

168 
Oil engine, 
economy of operation, 

145 
fuel reservoir for, 143 
how to start an, 144 
mixing valve for, 143 
throttling governor for, 
144 
Oil engines, 

how to find horse power 

of, 145 
how they work, 142 
Oil power, how to use, 151 
Overshot water wheel, 100 

Packing for stuffing box- 
es, 129 

Parallelogram, to find area 
of, 186 



Pasteur water filter, 48 

Pattern maker's shrinkage 
rule, 5 

Pelton water wheel, 101 

Penstock for water wheel, 
103 

Phosphor-bronze bearing 
metal, 88 

Piling for buildings, 26 

Pipes from freezing, how to 
prevent water, 60 

Pitch of rafters, 12 

Pitches, table of common, 
13 

Placing concrete, 43 

Plain gears, 83 

Planimeter, the, 23 

Plaster for walls, 34 

Plastering for buildings, 26 

Plumb, the, 20 

Plumb glass, 20 

Plumbing, 
a word on, 61 
iron pipe for, 61 
red lead for joints, 61 
table of iron pipe sizes 
for, 62 

Pneumatic water supply 
system, 51 

Portland cement, 
Atlas, 45 
concrete, for, 45 
made, is how, 41 
stucco, for, 38 
tested, is how, 41 



200 



INDEX 



S Potential, or latent heat in 
steam, 113 
Power, 

how to use hot air, 151 
how to use wind, 148 
source of all useful, 94 
water, 99 
wind, 94 
Power of engines, 145 
gas 

gasoline 
hot air 
oil 
Power of a hot air engine, 

145 
Power plant, 

how to use an automo- 
bile as a, 152 
parts of an electric, 169 
steam, the, 112 
Power plants compared, 
cost of operation of, 
112 
Power transmission, fric- 
tion drive, 152 
Preserve wood, how to, 

32 
Prevent water pipes from 
freezing, how to, 60 
Prony brake for measur- 
ing horse power, 91 
Protractor, the, 20 
Pulley, the, 76 
how to find the size of, 
79 



Pulleys, split, 154 
Pump, 
action of, 

centrifugal, 60 
force, 58 
lift pumps, 59 
automatic air or auto- 
pneumatic, 56 
is made, 

how a centrifugal, 59 
how a lift, 57 
how the force, 58 
Pumps, kinds of water, 

58 
Pumps and pumping, 57 

Kadiators for heating 

plants, 70, 72, 74 
Radius of a circle, to find, 

185 
Eafter framing table, 12 
Rafters, 

buildings, for, 30 
length, rise and pitch of, 
12 
Ram, see Hydraulic ram 
Ratchet, 

racks and pinions, 85 
wheels, 85 
Rating of storage batter- 
ies, 177 
Refrigerators, kinds of, 

159 
Refrigerating machines, 



ammonia, 159 



201 



INDEX 



Refrigerating machines, 
sulphur dioxide, 160 
see also Ice machines 
Refrigerator, how to build 

a, 164 
Registers for hot air heat- 
ing plants, 67 
Relation between current, 
pressure and resist- 
ance, 168 
Resistance, 
box, 168 

ohm, and the, 168 
relation between pres- 
sure, current and, 
168 
Right angles, how to lay 

out, 7 
Ring, to find the area of 
solid part of a ring, 
185 
Rise of rafters, 112 
Roe tape measure, 7 
Roller bearings, 88 
Rolling friction, 87 
Roofing materials, 26 
Rope, 

drive transmission, 149 
transmission, blue book 
of, 150 
Rule, 

carpenter's boxwood, 1 
pattern makers' shrink- 
age, 3 
triangular boxwood, 2 



Rules, 

electric wiring, for, 181 
flexible, 3 

installing and using in- 
ternal combustion 
engines, for, 146 
measuring, for, 1 
useful arithmetical, 185 
Rules and tables, useful, 183 

Sand, 
how to test, 41 
mortar, for, 34 
Safety valve, how it is 
made and works, 121 
Scale, 

architects' and machin- 
ists', 2 
how to learn the trian- 
gular, 2 
how to use the triangu- 
lar, 4 
Scales compared, thermom- 
eter, 64 
Scotch glass for tubes for 

water gauge, 117 
Screw, the, 76 
Seasoning, 
hot air, 28 
natural, 28 
wood, 27 
Sensible heat in steam, 

113 
Septic tank sewage system, 
62 



202 



INDEX 



Sewage, 

septic tank system, 62 
word on, a, 61 
Shingle nails, table of, 184 
Shingles, 

roofs, for, 31 
table of number- and 
weight, 183 
Shrinkage rule, pattern 

makers', 5 
Sills for buildings, 30 
Sizes of, 

engines, 145 
gas 

gasoline 
hot air 
oil 
steam boilers, 122 
Sliding friction, 87 
Speed, 

indicator, 77-131 
shaft, pulley or flywheel, 
how to find the, 77 
surface or peripheral, 78 
Specific gravity of lubri- 
cants, 90 
Sphere, to find the volume 

of a, 186 
Splice a belt, how to, 81 
Splice, cement belt, 81 
Split pulleys, 154 
Spoked gears, 83 
Sprocket wheels, 85 
Spur gears, 83 
Square, carpenter's steel, 7 



Starrett vernier caliper, 15 
Steam, energy of, 112 
great prime power, 112 
how it is measured, 113 
kinetic, or sensible, heat 

in, 113 
latent heat in, 127 
pipes, noise in, 73 
potential or latent heat 

in, 113 

whistle, 121 

Steam boiler, 

fittings of a, 114 
globe valve 
safety valve 
steam delivery pipe 
steam gauge 
steam gauge cocks 
steam whistle 
water gauge 
water pump 
heating surface of, 130 
how to find heating sur- 
face of a, 130 
how to find the horse 

power of a, 129 
how it is made, 114 
return tubular, 114-115 
safety valve for, 121 
water for gauge, 116 
water intake pipe for, 

116 
what boiler horse power 

is, 129 
whistle for, 121 



203 



INDEX 



Steam boilers, 

horizontal tubular, 114 

kinds of, 114 

locomotive, 114 

sizes of, 122 

upright tubular, 114 
Steam engine, 

how to figure horse power 
of a, 130 

how a flywheel acts on 
a, 128 

how a governor acts, 128 

how it is made, 122 

how it works, 126 

packing for stuffing 
boxes, 129 

parts of, 123 
Steam engines, kinds of, 123 
Steam gauge, 72, 113 

Bourdon, 119 
Steam gauge, 

how it acts, 113 

how it is made, 119 
Steam heating plants, 70 
Steam power, how to use, 

150 
Steam power plant, the, 112 
Steam pressure is, what, 

113 
Steel square, carpenter's, 7 
Still, how to make a, 49 
Stone and stonework, 37 
Stonework, 

measuring, 38 

mortar for, 37 



Storage battery, 

ampere hour defined, 177 
cell, 

electromotive force of 

a, 177 
voltage of, 177 
current it will deliver, 

177 
electrolyte for a, 175 
element for, 175 
how it is made, 175 
lighting the home, for, 

177 
parts of a, 176 
rating of, 177 
Stove, cheap old, 67 
Stucco, 
how to put it on, 39 
mortar for, 38 
ways of using, 38 
Stucco mortar, how to 

make, 40 
Stucco work, tools needed 

for, 39 
Studding for buildings, 30 
Stuffing boxes, packing 

for, 129 
Sulphur dioxide, 
gas, 159 

refrigerating machines, 
160 
Superficial foot in brick- 
work, 36 
Surface speed, how to find 
the, 78 



204 



INDEX 



Switch, double throw, 177 1 Tailrace of a water power 



Switchboard, 177 
ammeter 

automatic cut-out 
double throw switch 
fuses 

home electric plants, for 
parts of a 
voltmeter 

Table, 

amount of water that can 

be raised, 183 
anti-friction alloys, 88 
average weights and vol- 
umes of fuels, 187 
brace measure, 10 
Essex board measure, 11 
number and weight of 

shingles, 183 
rafter framing, 12 
relative costs of woods, 

32 
Tables and rules, useful, 

183 
Table of size, 

iron pipe for plumbing, 

62 
length and number of 

shingle nails to the 

pound, 184 
Table of wall thickness, 

36 
bricks thick and 
bricks per superficial foot 



plant, 104 
Tail water, 104 
Tank, 

how to figure capacity of 

a, 54 
size of water, 54 
Tape measure, Roe, 7 
Tape measures, steel, 6 
Temperature, 

absolute zero, 157 

boiling point, 65 

defined, 65 

freezing point, 65 

human body, of, 157 

low, 157 

maximum and minimum 

points, 65 
normal, 157 
standard of low, 157 
what it means, 64 
Testing and comparing, 

gauges for, 20 
Thawing a frozen water 

pipe, 61 
Thermometer scale, 
centigrade, 64 
Fahrenheit, 64 
Thermometer scales com- 
pared, 64 
Throttling governor for oil 

engine, 144 
Timber, 26 

Timing gears for gas en- 
gines, 137 



205 



INDEX 



Tools, 

measuring, for, 1 

needed for stucco work, 
39 
Toothed wheels, 82-85 

gears, 82 
Towers for windmills, 99 
Trapezium, to find the 

area of a, 186 
Trapezoid, to find the area 

of a, 186 
Triangle, to find the area 

of a, 185 
Transmission line, 

aluminum wire far, 180 

wire for, 179 
Transmission of power, 149 
Tree, 

cross section of a, 27 

how it is formed, 27 

when it is felled, 26 
Triangular boxwood rule, 2 
Trim for buildings, 26 

Undershot water wheel, 100 
Unit of, 

electric power, 173 

of heat, 66 
Upright steam boilers, 114 
Useful arithmetical rules, 

185 
Useful rules and tables, 183 

Variable resistance, 177 
Ventilating and heat, 66 



Ventilation, how to get 

good, 73 
Vernier, the, 14 
caliper, 15 
how to read and use it, 

15 
Pierre, 14 
Volt, unit of electromotive 

force, 167 
Voltage, 

drop in, 180 
storage battery and cell, 
177 
Voltmeter, 168 

switchboard, 177 
Volume, 

cylinder, to find the, of 

a, 186 
sphere, how to find, of a, 
186 

Walls, 

buildings, for, 26 
plaster for, 34 
thickness in brickwork, 

36 
Water, 

boiling, purifying, by, 47 
centrifugal force of, 102 
delivered by a ram, to 

find the amount of, 

110 
distillation, purifying, 

by, 148 
evaporation of, 129 



206 



INDEX 



Water, 
figuring the weight of, 55 
filter, Pasteur, 48 
filtration, purifying, by, 

47 
gauge, 53, 116 

glass tube for, 117 
head of, 108 
effective 
net 

running 
static 
surveyed 
how to purify, 47 
intake pipe for steam 

boiler, 116 
means, what head of, 108 
water pipe is frozen, 
what to do when a, 
61 
water pipes from freez- 
ing, how to prevent, 
61 
wheel, needle nozzle for, 
101 
Water power, 99 
how to use, 149 
is developed, how, 99 
what is, 99 
Water pump, auto-pneu- 
matic or automatic 
air, 56 
Water pumps, kinds of, 58 
Water supply, schemes for 
a, 51 



Water supplies, kinds of, 

46 
Water supply system, 
air pressure or pneu- 
matic, 51 
automatic air or auto- 
pneumatic, 55 
gravity, 51 
on your place, 46 
Water tanks, 
how to figure capacity, 54 
needed, size of, 54 
Water that can be raised, 

table of, 183 
Water turbine, 102 
efficiency of, 103 
how it is made and 

works, 103 
parts of, 104 
principle of, 102 
Water turbines, 

amount of water needed 

for, 105 
sizes of, 105 
Water used by a family, 

amount of, 49 
Water-wheel, 

actual horse power of a, 

110 
gross horse power of a, 

110 
how to find the horse 

power of a, 109 
penstock or flume for a, 
103 



207 



INDEX 



Water wheels, 100, 101 

breast 

jet 

kinds of, 99 

overshot 

Pelton 

turbine 

■undershot 
Water of your supply, how 
to measure head of, 
109 
Watt, unit of electric 

power, 173 
Watts, 

generated, how to figure, 
173 

horse power, in a, 173 
Weatherboards for build- 
ings, 31 
Webbed gears, 83 
Wedge, the, 76 
Weight of water, figuring 

the, 55 
Wheels, 

ratchet, 85 

sprocket, 85 

toothed, 82 
Whistle, steam, 121 
Wind, the, 94 
Windmill, parts of a, 95 
Windmills, 

height of, 98 

horse power of, 97 

machinery for, sizes of, 
97 



Windmills, 

pumping, sizes of, 97 
towers for, 99 

Windpower, 

developed, how, 94 
electricity, changing 

into, 148 
how to use, 148 

Wind power, 94 
what is, 94 

Wind power to work, put- 
ting, 94 

Winds, height of, 98 

Wiring, electric apparatus 

in parallel, 181 

inside and outside, 180 

Wire, 

rubber covered, 180 
transmission line, for, 179 
weather-proof, 180 

Wood, 

building, kinds of, 31 
how to preserve, 32 
inside work, for, 32 
outside work, for, 32 
seasoning, 27 

Woods, 

kinds to use, 32 
pounds per foot, 32 
relative costs of, 32 
where to use certain 
kinds of, 31 

Worm gears, 85 



Zero, absolute, 157 



208 



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